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Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) in the Near East. 7000-5600 BC “Neolithic Revolution”. Beginning of settled life. 7000-6500 BC Walled settlement at Jericho. c.7000 BC Earliest Neolithic culture in Southern Italy, Sicily, and Liguria. c. 6000 BC Chalcolithic Period (Copper-Stone Age). First metalwork. 5600-3500 BC Beginning of the Sumerian civilization. c. 5000 BC First settlements in the fertile river valleys of Sumer. Northern Mesopotamia. Appearance of the brilliant Tell Halaf pottery. c. 5000 BC Sumerians arrive in Southern Mesopotamia. 4500 BC The Sumerians are of unknown origin. The Sumerians settle in Southern Mesopotamia. 4500-2800 BC Mesopotamia means the land between the rivers. Sumerian Al’Ubaid period in Southern Mesopotamia. c. 4500 BC Begins with the appearance of painted pottery and a simple agricultural economy in the area. Sumerian Al’Ubaid culture in Southern Mesopotamia. Well developed urban life. c. 4260-2750 BC Earliest exactly dated year in history. 4241 BC Recorded date in the ancient Egyptian calendar. Farmers living along the Danube River in villages design stone replicas of their deities. c. 4000 BC First year of the Jewish calendar. 3760 BC Beginning of the Bronze Age in Mesopotamia. 3500 BC Tools are made of bronze. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Beginning of pictogram writing in early Mesopotamia. 3500 BC First phonetic writing. The Sumerian civilization in Lower Mesopotamia is considered by many ancient historians to be the first great civilization of mankind. “White Temple” on Ziggurat. Uruk (Warka). c. 3200 BC Beginning of ideogram writing in early Mesopotamia. c. 3200 BC The Sumerians develop cuneiform writing. c. 3200-3100 BC Beginning of phonogram writing (syllables) in early Mesopotamia. Temple of Uruk is built in Sumeria. c. 3100 BC Upper and Lower Egypt are united by Menes (Narmer), the first Pharaoh of the first dynasty. c. 3100 BC Menes built his capital at Memphis. Kish, which was situated near modern Baghdad, becomes the leading Sumerian city during the reign of King Etana. c. 3000 BC The “Great Deluge”. c. 3000 BC The Old Testament (Jewish) account corresponds with the later written Gilgamesh Epic. The Bronze Age culture begins, in Europe, in the Aegean and Greece. ca. 3000 BC Meskiaggasher founds dynasty in Erech. ca. 2800 BC This dynasty begins to rival Kish. Rise of Kingship in Sumeria. 2800 BC Rise of early Helladic culture on the mainland of Greece (central Greece and the Peloponnesus). 2800-2100 BC Bronze Age culture in Melos and other islands of the Cyclades. Early Cycladic. 2800-2200 BC Royal burials at Ur. 2750-2650 BC Gilgamesh. Sumerian. Reigns as king of Uruk (Erech). ca. 2750 BC Gilgamesh builds walls around Uruk. The Gilgamesh epic. c. 2750 BC Kingship becomes hereditary in Sumeria. 2700 BC Third Egyptian Dynasty. c. 2600 BC Imhotep. Builds stepped pyramid in early Egypt. 2600 BC The Great Sphinx is built. ca. 2550 BC Early Minoan Period. 2600-2200 BC Beginning of the Cretan civilization on Crete (until c.1400 BC). Knossus (Cnossus) is the leading city on Crete. Cretan civilization spreads to the Aegean Islands. Fourth Egyptian dynasty. c. 2550 BC Celts, who overran western Europe, ride horses, carry iron weapons, and are ruled by Druids, a priestly class. 2500-1200 BC Eannatum of Lagash, a great warrior, defeats the Sumerian cities of Ur in the south and Kish in the north. Extends his power into Elam as far as Mari. ca. 2450 BC Eannatum makes the Sumerian city state of Lagash supreme. Urakgina takes power in Lagash. ca. 2400 BC Institutes the first known social reforms in history. Reign of the Pharaoh Cheops (also known as Khufu). 2589-2566 BC The Great Pyramid of Pharaoh Cheops (Khufu), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, is completed in Gizeh. ca. 2560 BC Reign of Chephren. 2558-2533 BC Lugalannemundu, King of Adab. Briefly unites the Sumerian city states. 2500 BC Following his death, the city states will fight each other for about 200 years. The Assyrians settle at the Upper Tigris and Greater Zab rivers. c. 2500 BC The capital Assur, and the country received their names from Assur, the chief god of the Assyrians. Beginning of the Indus valley civilization of northern India. c.2400 BC A sophisticated culture thrived and cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were built with courtyard houses. Sargon of Akkad conquers Sumer (Sumeria). 2370 BC Sargon I the Great (2360-2305) of Akkad. 2350-2300 BC Period of Akkadian dominance. Sargon conquers Mesopotamia, parts of Syria and Asia Minor, and Elam. Sargon the Great rules over the vast empire in Mesopotamia. Founds Agade in Akkad and builds his capital there. Builds beautiful temples and palace. Middle Minoan Period. 2200-1550 BC The cities of Crete reach their maximum expansion. Middle Cycladic Period. 2200-1650 BC Egypt fragments with dynasties in rival capitals. ca. 2200 BC Hsia Dynasty of China. c.2200-c.1776 BC First historic Chinese dynasty. Horses are domesticated and rice and millet are cultivated. Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Reunites Egypt. c. 2200 BC The Gutians, from what is modern day Iran, conquer Sumeria. They destroy Agade, and rule Sumeria. ca. 2180-2080 BC Aryan invasion of India. c.2150 BC The Aryans, a Sanskrit speaking people from Central Asia, invade India and destroy the Indus valley civilization. Egypt expands its territory southward. 2133-1786 BC Engages in extensive foreign trade. Reign of Ur-Nammu of Sumeria. 2113-2096 BC Ur-Nammu, Sumerian ruler. Builds the Ziggurat of Ur. 2112 BC Ur-Nammu founds the last Sumerian dynasty and promulgates law code, the oldest code of laws known. ca. 2112 BC Middle Helladic culture. 2100-1550 BC Gudeans are driven out of Sumaria, by Utu-Hegal, King of Erech (Uruk). The Sumerians are restored back to power. 2050 BC Abraham, the son of Terah. Leaves Ur in Chaldea (Ur of the Chaldees). ca. 2100 BC End of Sumerian rule. Invasion of Amorites and Elamites. 2000 BC The Elamites destroy Ur, marking the end of Sumerian dominance in Mesopotamia. The Mycenaeans enter Greece from the north. c. 2000 BC The Hebrews live as nomadic shepherds in Canaan. 2000-1700 BC Settlement of the Hittites in Anatolia in Asia Minor. 2000 BC Founding of the first Hittite Kingdom. Fall of the Sumerian Empire to the Amorites and Gutians. 1950 BC Egypt conquers lower Nubia. 1950 BC Entrance of Abraham, son of Terah, into Canaan. ca. 1900 BC Arrival of Indo-European peoples on the Greek mainland. 1900 BC Start of the first Babylonian Empire. c. 1900 BC Stonehenge. ca. 1900-1400 BC A massive stone complex used for religious purposes, is built on Salisbury Plain, England. Babylonian mathematics. ca. 1900 BC Reaches its high level with a numbering system that is based upon the developed sexagesimal system with a place value notation for both whole numbers and fractions. Also surviving are tables of squares, of square roots, of cubes, cube roots, and of the sums of squares and cubes. Minoan culture in Crete. ca. 1800-1700 BC Founding of Thebes, Greece. ca. 1800 BC The Old Assyrian Empire. 1800-1375 BC Hammurabi ascends the throne of Babylonia. 1792 BC Hammurabi rules the western Semitic Kingdom of Babylonia. Hammurabia rules Canaan. ca. 1792-1750 BC Shang Dynasty in northern China. c.1766-1122 BC Hammurabi writes code of laws. Law Code of Hammurabi is carved into stele. 1755 BC Egypt is invaded, conquered, and then ruled by the Hyksos. The Hyksos, a Semitic people, probably came from Canaan. They introduced horse drawn chariots. ca. 1730-1570 BC Jacob, the son of Isaac, enters into Egypt. ca. 1700 BC Late Cycladic Period. 1650-1300 BC Beginning of Achaean ascendancy. 1650-1500 BC Old Kingdom of the Hittites. c. 1650-1500 BC A volcano explodes on the Minoan island of Thera, near Akrotiri, Greece. This explosion is twice as violent as that of Krakatoa. 1628 BC Destroys Minoan cities. This explosion brings about the abrupt transition from the Minoan culture to the Mycenaean culture. Reign of Mursilis I, King of the Hittites. 1620-1590 BC First beginnings of Phoenician cities. 1600-1200 BC Mursilish I, King of the Hittites, defeats Halpa (Aleppo). c. 1595 BC Mursili I, King of the Hittites (also called Kassites). Babylon and Babylonian dynasty is destroyed by the Hittites. 1595 BC The Hittites came from what will later be known as Anatolia and Syria. Beginning of the Mycenaean civilization. 1580 BC Mycenaeans, a Greek speaking people, settle in Greece. Mycenaeans establish a flourishing civilization, and trade with Crete. Reign of Amosis I. 1570-1546 BC New Kingdom in Egypt. The Hyksos kings are expelled by Amosis I. ca. 1570-1085 BC Egyptian power and civilization reaches its height. Egypt conquers Nubia. 1560 BC Late Helladic culture. 1550-1100 BC Late Minoan Period. 1550-1100 BC Decline sets in. Reign of Amenhotep I (son of Amosis I). c. 1541-1520 BC Reign of Thutmosis I, Pharaoh of Egypt. 1520-1492 BC The Birth of Moses. c.1520 BC Thutmosis I of Egypt penetrates to the Euphrates Valley. 1520-1512 BC Middle Kingdom of the Hittites. c.1500-1420 BC Mitanni kingdom of Hurrians (known as the Horites in the Old Testament) rule much of Mesopotamia and Assyria. ca. 1500 BC Linear B script exists in Crete, indicating evidence of Mycenaean influence on the language of Crete. ca. 1500 BC The Hellenic invasion of Greece. ca. 1500-1000 BC The Palace of Minos. Knossos, Crete. ca. 1500 BC Reign of Thutmosis III of Egypt. 1480-1448 BC Under him, Egypt experiences its greatest territorial expansion. Rules from the Euphrates River to the 4th Cataract of the Nile River. Battle of Megiddo. 1479 BC Egyptians under Thutmose III of Egypt, defeat a Confederation of Palestinian states in northern Israel. Egypt conquers Syria and part of Mesopotamia. Reign of Hatshepsut in Egypt. 1479-1458 BC Temple of Hatshepsut. Egypt. ca. 1460 BC Destruction of the Minoan culture. 1450-1375 BC The destruction of the palace of Knossos by fire occurred during an unsuccessful revolt of the Cretan population against their new masters from Mycenae (the Mycenaeans). The Exodus. Moses leads the Jews out of Egypt. c.1446 BC Definitive establishment of Achaean dominance of Crete. ca. 1425 BC New Hittite Kingdom. c.1420-1190 BC Reign of Amenhotep (Amenophis) III. 1417-1379 BC Marks the beginning of the downfall of Egyptian power. The Death of Moses. c. 1406 BC Joshua succeeds Moses as the leader of the Jews. The Mycenaeans gain supremacy of the Mediterranean. ca. 1400 BC Mycenae, located in the northern Peloponnesus, becomes the major ancient city following the collapse of Knossus (the Minoans). Middle Assyrian Empire. 1375-1047 BC Assyrian law during this period called for some terrible forms of punishment. These included blinding, severance of ears, nose, lips, fingers and toes, castration, amputation of arms and legs, and the destruction of faces by the application of boiling asphalt. Reign of Amenhotep (Amenophis) IV. 1352-1336 BC Amenhotep (Amenophis) IV changes his name to Akhenaton. ca. 1350 BC Married to Nofretete, Akhenaton attempts to introduce in Egypt the worship of Aton, or the Sun. Founding of the city of Corinth (Greece). 1350 BC Height of expansion of the Hittite Empire. 1350 BC Reign of Tutenkhamen, son-in-law of Akhnaton. c. 1332-1324 BC Restores polytheism in Egypt. Reign of Rameses I of Egypt. 1319-1290 BC Reign of Rameses II of Egypt. 1304-1237 BC Ramses II, ruler of Egypt. 1300-1290 BC Completes the temples of Karnak, Thebes, Luxor, and Abu-Simbel. Battle of Kadesh (in modern day Syria). 1288 BC (Part of Egyptian-Hittite Wars). Egyptian armies under Rameses II lose a major battle to the HIttites led by Mursilish II, at Kadesh in Syria. Fought for mastery of Syria. Both sides claim the victory. Ramses II of Egypt makes peace with the Hittites. 1283 BC Shalmaneser I becomes ruler of Assyria. 1275 BC The Phoenicians flourish on the coasts of Syria and Lebanon. c. 1250 BC The Phoenicians establish the city states of Tyre and Sidon. Phoenicians begin to colonize the Mediterranean coast. The Israelites conquer and enter into Canaan (Palestine). ca. 1250 BC Crossing of the Jordan River by the Israelites. c. 1250 BC The Israelite league is victorious in a battle fought in the Esdraedon Valley. The victory is celebrated in the Song of Deborah (Judges 5). ca. 1235 BC Merneptah leads Egyptian army in campaign against Israel in Palestine (first mention of the tribe of Israel in the Israel Stele) and against the Libyans, who were allied with the Sea Peoples (Greeks, Philistines). ca. 1234-1220 BC Trojan War. ca. 1203- c. 1193 BC The Greeks led by Agamemnon, Achilles, and Odysseus (Ulysses) lay siege to the ancient city of Troy. Troy will ultimately fall to the Greeks (c. 1193 BC). The Latins, an Indo-European speaking Italic people from Central Europe, cross the Alps, invade Italy, and settle in Central Italy. ca. 1200 BC Dorian (North Greeks) invaders from the north, begin to invade Greece. Devastation of Achaean cities. 1200 BC 20th Dynasty in Egypt. 1200-1090 BC The League of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. ca. 1200 BC The period of the Judges of Israel. 1200-1020 BC Destruction of the Hittite Empire and other near eastern civilizations by invaders (the “Sea Peoples”). c. 1200 BC The Fall of Troy. 1193 BC Troy, in Asia Minor, falls to Greek armies after a ten year siege (according to Homer). Traditional date for the destruction of the city of Troy. Rameses III becomes ruler of Egypt. 1188 BC Egyptian delta. c. 1188 BC Invasion of Egypt by confederation of “Sea Peoples”. These include Greeks, Philistines, Sardinians, and Sicilians. The “Sea Peoples” are defeated by Rameses III. Rameses III defeats an armada of invading “Peoples of the Sea”. Egyptian independence is preserved. The Philistines are pushed back from Egypt. 1180 BC Gideon and the Midianites. c. 1169 BC Sack of Babylon and overthrow of Kassite power by the Elamites. 1160 BC The Dorians (Northern Greeks) conquer Crete. 1150 BC Greeks settle on the Ionian coast of Asia Minor. 1150-1000 BC Phoenicians found their first north African colony at Utica located in what is modern day Tunisia. 1140 BC Nebuchadnezzar I, King of Babylon. 1125-1116 BC Chou Dynasty of China. 1122-480 BC Overthrows the Shang Dynasty. Tiglath-Pileser I. Ruler of Assyria. 1116-1077 BC Founds the Assyrian Empire. Fortifies it against migrating peoples from the north. Will conquer Babylon. The Babylonians defeat the Elamites. 1100 BC 21st Dynasty in Egypt. 1090-945 BC Civil war under Ramses XI. Israel is conquered by the Philistines. ca. 1070 BC The central shrine of the League of Israel at the Battle of Shiloh is destroyed. The Ark of the Covenant is taken by the Philistines. Samuel, the last of the Judges of Israel. He is forced to institute kingship in Israel at the insistence of the twelve tribes of Israel. ca. 1043 BC Saul is anointed the first King of Israel. Reign of King Saul of Israel. ca. 1043-1010 BC Saul leads Israel in the struggle against the Ammonites. ca. 1042 BC Saul defeats the Ammonites. Philistines invade central Palestine. 1041 BC Saul, King of Israel, is at war against the Philistine invaders. At the end of his reign, Saul is defeated by the Philistines at the catastrophic Battle of Gilboa on the plain of Jezreel. ca. 1010 BC Saul, King of the Jews, commits suicide by falling on his own sword. David, King of the Jews. ca. 1010 BC On the death of King Saul, David is anointed King of the Jews at Hebron. Reign of David, King of the Jews (kingdom of Judah). David defeats the Philistines and begins to unite Israel. ca.1010-ca.970 BC Although David is anointed King of Israel, for 7 ½ years he rules only the southern Kingdom of Judah. Ishbaal, son of Saul, rules briefly in the northern kingdom of Israel. Thereafter David will rule all of Israel both northern and southern kingdoms. David captures Jerusalem (c. 1000 BC) and makes it the religious and political capital of Israel. David returns the Ark of the Covenant (1000 BC) and the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) to the city. David reigns over all of Israel (north and south). c. 1003 BC Teutonic tribes settle in northern Europe. c. 1000 BC The Phoenicians dominate the seas. 1000-774 BC The Phoenicians probably sailed to Cornwall, England, for tin and sailed down the west coast of Africa. The Birth of Solomon, the son of David. c. 990 BC Hyram (Hiram) I is King of the Phoenician city of Tyre. c. 969-936 BC David is succeeded by Solomon, his son by Bathsheeba. Solomon rules Israel. ca. 970-ca. 933 BC Solomon, King of the Jews. Completes the Temple of Jehovah at Jerusalem. ca. 966 BC Tiglath-Pileser II. King of Assyria (rules for 32 years). 966-935 BC Hiram I builds the fortified city of Tyre. c. 950 BC The Queen of Sheba visits Solomon, King of Israel. c. 946 BC 22nd Dynasty of Egypt. 945-745 BC Begins with Sheshonk I (rules 945 to 918 BC). The Death of Solomon, King of Israel. ca. 933 BC Immediately upon the death of King Solomon, rebellion follows the accession of his son Rehoboam. ca. 933 BC The Kingdom of Israel is divided into a southern kingdom (Judah, with its capital at Jerusalem) under Rehoboam (to c. 915 BC), the son of King Solomon. The northern kingdom (Israel with its capital at Shechem, later Tirzah and Pneul, then Samaria) is under Jeroboam I (to 912 BC), also the son of Solomon. Reign of Jeroboam I, First King of Israel. c. 933-912 BC Civil war between Rehoboam, King of Judah, and Jeroboam I, King of Israel. 933-915 BC The Kingdom of Israel (the Northern Kingdom). 933-722 BC The Dynasty of Jeroboam I (ca. 933-901), of the Kingdom of Israel. Jeroboam is the son of Solomon. 933-900 BC The Kingdom of Judah (the southern kingdom). 933-586 BC Reign of Rehoboam, first King of Judah. ca. 933-915 BC Rehoboam is the son of Solomon. Shoshenq I of Egypt (called Shishok in the Old Testament) proceeds with his army out from the Egyptian delta. 918 BC The civil war between Rehoboam and Jeroboam I is broken off by the attack of Shoshonq I. Shoshenq (Sheshonk) of Egypt invades Palestine, plunders the city of Jerusalem, devastates Edom, Judah, and much of Israel in the north. Death of Rehoboam, the King of Judah (the kingdom of the south). 915 BC Reign of Abijah (Abijam) the Second King of Judah. ca. 915-913 BC Civil War continues between Israel (the kingdom of the north) and Juda (the kingdom of the south) through his reign. Asa, Third King of Judah. ca. 913-873 BC Civil War continues between Israel (the kingdom of the north) and Judah (the kingdom of the south) throughout his reign. Nadab. Second King of Israel (the kingdom of the north). c. 912-910 BC Nadab is son of Jeroboam I of Israel. The New Assyrian Empire. The Assyrian Empire controls Mesopotamia (until 606 BC). 910 BC The murder of Nadab, the son of Jeroboam I, by Baasha. 910 BC Baasha. Third King of Israel. c. 910-909 BC The Dynasty of Baasha in the northern Kingdom of Israel. 910-876 BC Baasha. Third King of Israel (the kingdom of the north). Attempts to re-ignite the smoldering civil war with the Kingdom of Judah. Asa, King of Judah (913-873BC), however, calls upon Ben-Hadad I, King of Aram-Damascus (880-842BC). Ben-Hadad I attacks Baasha, King of Israel, lays waste to part of Galilee and annexes the territory northeast of the Yarmuk River. c. 909 BC Elah. Fourth King of Israel (the kingdom of the north). c. 909-908 BC Elah is the son of Baasha. During the New Assyrian Empire, Adad-Nirari II, engages in conflicts in Northern Mesopotamia. 909-889 BC Elah, the son of Baasha, King of Israel, is assassinated by Zimri. 908 BC Zimri. Fifth King of Israel. c. 908 BC Zimri is burnt to death in his palace in T'irzah by Omri. Omri. Sixth King of Israel (the kingdom of the north). c. 908-897 BC Omri advances to the throne by the army of Israel. Under his reign, Omri builds a new capital at Samaria making it the religious and governmental capital of Israel. Omri, King of Israel, establishes the Omride Dynasty. 908-842 BC Omri. Sixth King of Israel. Omri will renew alliances with the Phoenician city of Tyre, by the marriage of the Phoenician princess Jezebel, the daughter of Ittoba'al, King of Tyre (887-856 BC) to his son Ahab, the crown prince of Israel. c. 908 BC During his reign, Omri reconquers Moab (from the Mesha inscription). The founding of Sparta. ca. 900 BC Four villages (Limnia, Mesoa, Kynosura, and Petane) are consolidated into a single settlement in the Eurotas River Valley. Reign of Ahab, the Seventh King of Israel. c. 897-853 BC Ahab, King of Israel, will fight defensive wars with Ben-Hadad I, King of Aram-Damascus. Ittoba’al. King of Tyre. c. 887-856 BC Ittoba’al is the father of Jezebel. Reign of Ashurnarspal II (also written Ashurnasirpal). c. 883-859 BC The great grandson of Adad-Nirari, he is considered to be the most vicious of the Assyrian kings. He subsequently formed an empire which corresponded in size to that of Tiglath-Pileser I. The resistance of neighboring peoples was broken by annual campaigns which used cavalry probably for the first time in the history of warfare. Methods of subjugation put the conquered peoples into a state of fear. Used blinding, impalement, scourging, boiling alive, and mass executions. The Assyrians under Ashurbanipal II conquered Phoenicia. Reign of Ben-Hadad I, the King of Aram-Damascus. ca. 880-842 BC Samaria (formerly Shechem or Sichem) is rebuilt as the capital of Israel, the kingdom of the north. 879 BC Jehosophat, Fourth King of Judah. Judah is the kingdom of the south. ca. 873-849 BC Jehoshaphat. Fourth King of Judah. c. 860 BC Makes peace with Ahab, King of Israel (kingdom of the north). Ahab joins Jehoshaphat in the wars against Damascus. Reign of Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria. 859-824 BC Rules for 35 years. Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria, son of Ashurbanipal, cemented overlordship in Syria and Palestine in order to control the trade routes from the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers to the Mediterranean Sea. The subjugation of Damascus, the Aramean capital was not accomplished. Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria. Meets a coalition of Aramaean kings (Sam’al, Hattini, Carchemish, and Bît Adini) at Lutibu near Sam'al (modern Zincirli). 858 BC Shalmaneser III claims the victory even though he did not break the power of the allies. Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria. Conquers Bît Adini, captures its prince, and annexes the country to the Assyrian Empire. 857-855 BC Once again the west unites against Shalmaneser III of Assyria. 854 BC The chiefs of the alliance are Irkhuleni of Hamath and Ben Hadad I (Hadadezer) of Damascus. Battle of Quarqar on the Orontes. 854 BC Ahab, King of Israel, Ben-Hadad I of Damascus, and Irkhuleni of Hamath head the coalition that stops Shalmaneser's march of conquest. Shalmaneser III, however, is stopped, but he is not defeated. Death of Ahab, the King of Israel. 854 BC Dies in Transjordan while fighting against Ben Hadad of Damascus. Ahab is succeeded by Ahaziah as King of Israel. c. 854 BC Reign of Ahaziah the Eighth King of Israel. c. 854-853 BC Ahaziah is succeeded by Joram in the Kingdom of Israel (the kingdom of the north). 853 BC Joram (Jehoram). Ninth King of Israel. c. 853-842 BC Elijah the Prophet, flourishes at this time. ca. 852 BC Elijah becomes the leader of a counter movement against the "House of Omri". Elijah battles against the worship of the Tyrian (Tyre) false god Ba'al that was worshipped by Jezebel. Elijah began a religious revolution that eventually brought down the "House of Omri". Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria, continues his attacks against the western forces. 850, 849, and 846 BC The Greeks adopt the Phoenician alphabet. c. 850 BC Arrival of the Etruscans in Rome. c. 850 BC Jehoshaphat, King of Judah, is succeeded by his son Jehoram. 849 BC Reign of Jehoram. Fifth King of Judah. c. 849-842 BC Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab, King of Israel, and his wife Jezebel, marries Joram, King of Judah. c. 849 BC Phoenician gods are introduced and worshiped in Israel. Ahaziah. Sixth King of Judah. 842 BC Ahaziah, grandson of Jehosophat, the King of Judah, succeeds Jehoram as the King of Judah. Ahaziah rules Judah for less than one year. Inspired by the prophet Elisha, the warrior Jehu leads an open rebellion against the King of Israel and his worship of false gods. 842 BC Ahaziah, the King of Judah, is killed in the blood purge. 842 BC Jehu is annointed King of Israel (kingdom of the north) by a delegate of the prophet Elisha. ca. 842 BC Reign of Jehu,Tenth King of Israel. ca. 842- 815 BC Jehu, King of Israel, eliminates the Omrites and suppresses the worship of Baal, the false god of the Phoenicians. The Dynasty of Jehu of Israel. 842-748 BC Athaliah seizes power over the kingdom of Judah. 842 BC Athaliah is a descendant of the Omri Dynasty of Israel. Athaliah, the dowager queen, rules Judah tyrannically after the elimination of the Omrites. 842-836 BC Athaliah attempts to secure her throne by attempting to completely destroy the Davidic house. However, a small son of Ahaziah escapes (his name is Jehoash). Hazael. Rules as King of Damascus. ca. 842-806 BC Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria. Conquers Syria. He attacks and defeats Hazael, King of Damascus, who had just come to the throne. 842 BC Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria. Finally defeats the western enemies. Jehu, King of Israel, submits to Shalmaneser III, of Assyria. 842 BC Tribute is paid to the Assyrian Empire by Jehu, King of Israel. The enthronement of Jehoash, King of Judah, with the backing of the High Priest. c. 836 BC Reign of Jehoash, the Eighth King of Judah. c. 836-797 BC The murder of Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, and wife of Joram, King of Judah. 836 BC During his reign, Jehoash, King of Judah, is forced to pay a heavy tribute to Aram. Shalmaneser III of Assyria makes conquests in Cilicia. ca. 835 BC Shalmaneser III fights against Sardur I, king of Urartu. ca. 830 BC Reign of Shalmaneser III ends in revolution. 824 BC Jehoahaz. Rules as the Eleventh King of Israel. c. 815-798 BC Hazael, King of Damascus. During the time of Jehoahaz (King of Israel), Hazael reduced the Kingdom of Israel to a dependency, conquered Philistia, and put the Kingdom of Judah under enormous tribute. Hazael also had unified the Aramaen states. 814-798 BC The founding and building of Carthage (New City), in North Africa by Phoenicians of Tyre. 814 BC Carthage becomes a wealthy commercial center. Queen Samuramat of Assyria. 811-807 BC This is the so-called Queen of Semiramis. Appearance of Jonah. 810-790 BC Death of Hazael, King of Damascus. ca. 806 BC “The Iliad” and “The Odyssey”. ca. 800-750 BC Written by Homer. The establishment of the Phrygian Kingdom (Phrygia), in Northern Anatolia, with its capital at Gordium. ca. 800 BC The most important ruler of Phrygia is Midas. 23rd Dynasty of Egypt. 800-730 BC In dual reign with 22nd Dynasty. Amaziah, Ninth King of Judah. ca. 797-769 BC Amaziah is the son of Jehoash, King of Judah. Succeeds to the throne of Judah (the kingdom of the south). Jehoash (Joash), Twelfth King of Israel. c. 797-780 BC Fights against Judah and defeats Amaziah, King of Judah. Takes Jerusalem and reduces the southern kingdom to vassalage. Brief conquest of Egypt by Ethiopia. 790 BC Joel, the Prophet of Israel. c. 790-760 BC The Prophet Hosea of Israel. c. 785-725 BC Reign of Jeroboam II, Thirteenth King of Israel. c. 780-741 BC Jeroboam is the son of Jehoash. Under the reign of Jeroboam II, Damascus and Hamath come under Israel's control for the first time since the days of King Solomon. The Prophet Amos of Israel. c. 780-760 BC The Prophets Amos and Hosea prophesy the complete destruction of the kingdom of Israel if the people do not cease the worship of false gods. They prophesize against the idol worship and corruption of the ca. 780 BC time of Jeroboam II, King of Israel. First Olympiad is held in ancient Greece. 776 BC Olympic games are initiated. Phoenicia comes under Assyrian rule. 774-625 BC Amaziah, King of Judah, is defeated by Israel. 769 BC He is killed in Judean rebellion. Reign of Uzziah (Azariah). Tenth King of Judah. c. 769-734 BC During his reign, Uzziah becomes the head of a western coalition formed against Syria. Traditional date for the founding and building of the city of Rome. 753 BC Founded by Romulus and Remus. Hills were occupied for centuries by Indo-Europeans and Sabines, sheep herders. Romulus is the first King of Rome (Rex Romae). Romulus rules 753-716 BC. The Prophet Isaiah. c. 750-695 BC Etruscans from the north capture Rome. ca. 750 BC The Etruscans will rule until 509 BC which marks the founding of the Roman Republic. The Romans seize Sabine women at a public spectacle, taking them as wives. 750 BC Founding of the first Greek colonies in southern Italy (called Magna Graecia) and eastern Sicily. c. 750 BC Magna Graecia was the ancient name for southern Italy. The founding of Cumae (Cyme), one of the first Greek colonies in southern Italy. c. 750 BC Founded by Greeks from Chalcis and Kyme. Hesiod of Ascra (in Boeotia). Greek. Author of "Theogony". 750-700 BC Jotham, Uzziah's son, serves as regent of Judah. c. 749-734 BC Rome is taken by the Sabines who unite with the Romans as one people. 747 BC Micah. The Jewish Prophet of Israel. c. 745-725 BC Reign of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria. c. 744-727 BC Subjugates Syria and Philistia Zechariah. 14th King of Israel. c. 741 BC Assassination of Zechariah, King of Israel, the last of the dynasty of Jehu. He is killed by Shallum. ca. 741 BC Shallum. 15th King of Israel (kingdom of the north). c. 741 BC Shallum is killed by Menahem in continued civil strife. 741 BC Menahem. 16th King of Israel. c. 741-731 BC The First Messenian War. c. 740-720 BC The conquest of Messenia by Sparta under King Theopompus. The Spartans, like the Athenians, feel the pressures of population expansion. But rather than send out colonies, they conquer Messenia. Sparta becomes a powerful military force on the Greek mainland. c. 736-730 BC Greek colonists continue to settle in Sicily. 735 BC In Sicily, the native peoples, including the Sicels, Sicans, and Elymians, retain their identity, although the east coast of the island becomes Hellenized. Rezin, King of Aram (754-732 BC) and Pekah, King of Israel, enter into a league against Assyria. ca. 735 BC Ahaz. Twelfth King of Judah. ca. 735-715 BC Ahaz, King of Judah. Ahaz refuses to join the conspiracy of Israel and Aram formed against the Assyrian Empire. 735 BC Pekah, King of Israel, and Rezin, King of Aram, declare war on Ahaz, King of Judah. 735 BC Uzziah, King of Judah. Defeated by Tiglath-pileser III, King of Assyria. c. 734 BC Unlike Hamath and his northern allies, he escapes with little harm. In his later years, Uzziah, King of Judah, becomes a leper and lives in isolation from his court. ca. 734 BC The founding of the city of Syracuse in Sicily by Greeks from the Greek city Corinth. ca. 734 BC The Carthaginians control the western part of Sicily. They prove a continual source of friction to the Greeks in the east of the island. Ahaz, King of Judah. Against the warning of the prophet Isaiah, Ahaz appeals to Assyria for help against the Syro-Ephraimite coalition. 734 BC Tiglathpileser III of Assyria comes westward. 734-732 BC Tiglathpileser III of Assyria lays waste the kingdom of Israel. 732 BC Much of Israel is turned into an Assyrian province. Tiglathpileser III of Assyria appoints Hosea (732-722) king in Samaria. Hosea (Hoshea) is the 19th, and the last, King of Israel. c. 732 BC Tiglathpileser III of Assyria. Lays waste Babylon and Damascus. 732-729 BC The whole of Aram is turned into a province of the Assyrian Empire. In his last year, Menahem, King of Israel (741-731), pays tribute to Tiglath-pileser III, King of Assyria. 731 BC Reign of Pekahiah, 17th King of Israel. c. 731-729 BC Founding of Rhegium (modern day Reggio Calabria), Italy, by Greeks from Chalcis, Messenia, and Sparta. 730 BC Chalcis and Eretria in Euboea send colonies to Rhegium, Italy. 730 BC Pekahiah, King of Israel, is killed by the anti-Assyrian group led by Pekah. c. 729 BC Pekah. Eighteenth King of Israel. ca. 729-732 BC Tiglath-Pileser III. Becomes Babylonian King. 729 BC Hoshea, King of Israel. Rebels against Assyria, hoping to receive military assistance from Tefnakhte, the ruler of Egypt. 725 BC Destruction of the Kingdom of Israel (the kingdom of the north). 722 BC Sargon II, Assyrian King, destroys Samaria, the capital of Israel, after a 3 year siege, completing the Assyrian conquest of the kingdom of Israel. Sargon II of Assyria exiles most of the Jews that are in Israel. Resettlement of many of the Jews in Media and Mesopotamia. Israel becomes a province of the Assyrian Empire. Sargon II claims to have taken 27,290 Israelites into captivity. The Citadel of Sargon II. Khorsabad. 722-706 BC Reign of Sargon II, King of Assyria. 722-705 BC Rules for 17 years. Sargon II, King of Assyria. Arms the Assyrian armies with iron weapons. 722 BC Achaeans from Greece found the ancient city of Sybaris in southern Italy. c.720 BC Sargon II (son of Tiglath-Pileser III), King of Assyria. Captures the city of Carchemish. 717 BC Numa Pompilius. Second King of Rome (Rex Romae). 716-672 BC Hezekiah. Thirteenth King of Judah. c. 715-687 BC Victory of Assyria over the kingdom of Urartu. 714 BC Achaeans (Greek) found Crotona (Croton) in southern Italy. c. 710 BC Sargon II, King of Assyria, captures Babylon. 709 BC After struggles with the Assyrian Empire, the Phrygians conclude a peace and begin paying tribute to Sargon II, King of Assyria. 709 BC Founding of the Spartan colony of Taras (Tarentum) in Magna Graecia (southern Italy) by Sparta. 706 BC Reign of Sennacherib (son of Sargon II), King of Assyria. c.705-682 BC Achaemenes. First ruler of the Achaemenid kingdom. This is the Teispid kingdom (c. 705-559 BC). c. 705 BC Height of Assyrian expansionism. 704-669 BC Hezekiah, King of Judah (kingdom of the south). Enters into an alliance with Phoenicia, Philistia, and Egypt, against Sennacherib, the new King of Assyria. ca. 702 BC Sennacherib of Assyria, marches westward to meet Hezekiah, King of Judah, and his Phoenician, Philistine, and Egyptian allies. Conquest of Phoenicia (except for Tyre) by Sennacherib of Assyria. 701 BC Luli, King of the Sidonians (Sidon), flees in terror to Cyprus. Egyptian forces under Shabaka are easily defeated by the Assyrians at The Battle of Elteqeh. Philistia falls to the Assyrians. 701 BC Subjugation of Judea by Sennacherib of Assyria. 701 BC Sennacherib reduces 46 walled cities of Judah and leaves Hezekiah, King of Judah, shut up in Jerusalem "like a bird in a cage". Sennacherib of Assyria is at Jerusalem. 701 BC Sennacherib threatens to destroy the city of Jerusalem. Hezekiah, King of Judea, capitulates, paying heavy tribute to the Assyrian Empire. The Achaeans (Greek) found the city of Metapontion (Metapontum) in southern Italy. c. 700 BC Founding of the Empire of the Medes (lasts until 549 BC). 700 BC Celts (Celtics) begin to invade Spain and France. 700 BC Deloces. First King of the Medes. 700-647 BC Greeks settle in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and Syria. c. 700-650 BC Temple of Hera is erected at Olympus. ca. 700 BC This is an example of an early Doric style temple. The destruction of Babylon by Sennacherib, King of Assyria. 689 BC Sennacherib of Assyria builds a magnificent palace at Nineveh. Sennacherib transforms Nineveh into the country's capital. 689 BC Rhodes and Crete settle the city of Gela in Sicily. 688 BC Manasseh. Fourteenth King of Judah. c. 687-642 BC Manasseh, son of Hezekiah, and his son Amon will rule as puppets of the Assyrian Empire during the reigns of Esarhaddon (681-669 BC) and Ashurbanapal (669-631 BC). Manasseh, King of Judah, is particularly remembered for his worship of false gods, including the Assyrian cult, and for the practice of child sacrifice. Reign of Gyges, King of Lydia. c. 685-652 BC King Gyges dethroned Candaules (Kandaules), King of Lydia, and subjected Western Asia Minor. Gyges fought without success against the Greek cities, conquering only Colophon. The severity, waste, and brutal conduct of Sennacherib of Assyria bring about his murder. 681 BC Reign of Essarhaddon, King of Assyria (son of Sennacherib). 681-669 BC Essarhaddon orders the rebuilding of Babylon. Allied with the Scythians, he pushed the Cimmerians back and conquered Egypt, short of Nubia. Under Essarhaddon, the Assyrian Empire achieves its greatest territorial expansion extending from what is now Iran to Egypt. Locrians, from Locri, Greece, found the city of Locri in southern Italy. Legal code is drawn up by Zaleucus. c. 680 BC Tullus Hostilius. Third King of Rome (Rex Romae). c. 672-640 BC Second Babylonian Empire is established. c.670 BC Conquest of Egypt by Esarhadon (Essarhaddon), King of Assyria. 669 BC Essarhadon dies while fighting in Egypt. Reign of Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria. 669-631 BC Ruled for 38 years. Under his reign, the large library at Nineveh is established. Contains 30,000 clay tablets of writings, including poetry, literature, historical, philosophical, religious, medical, astronomical, and other scientific writings as well as records of business transactions. The destruction of Thebes by Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria. 667 BC The founding of Byzantium by the Greek city Megara. ca.667 BC Reign of Psamtik I of Egypt. 663-609 BC Psamtik, frees Egypt from Assyrian rule. During his reign, Ionian mercenaries settle (c. 640 BC) in the Egyptian delta and Ionian trading stations are founded (Naucratis). Nahum. Prophet of the Kingdom of Judah. c. 660-630 BC Cypselus establishes tyranny at Corinth, Greece. 655 BC Gyges, King of Lydia, is killed during the defensive struggle fighting against the Cimmerians. 652 BC The Second Messenian War. ca.650-630 BC The Messenians revolt against Sparta. A tightly disciplined Spartan hoplite Phalanx finally defeats the Messenians after 20 years of warfare. Phraortes. Second King of the Medes. 647-625 BC Amon. Fifteenth King of Judah. 642-640 BC Teispes. Son of Achaemenes is ruler of Achaemenid kingdom. c. 640 BC Josiah. Sixteenth King of Judah (the kingdom of the south). c.640-609 BC Ancus Marcius. Fourth King of Rome (Rex Romae). c. 640-616 BC Miletus joins other cities in the founding of the important trading post of Naucratis, in the Nile Delta, Egypt. 640 BC Greeks found the north African city of Cyrene. ca.631 BC Cyrene becomes an important commercial center. Death of Assurbanipal, King of Assyria. 631 BC Jeremiah. Prophet of the Kingdom of Judah. His warnings of the impending and final destruction of Israel and Judah are rejected by the Hebrew people. c. 628-588 BC Ashur-etil-ilani. King of Assyria. 631-627 BC Zephaniah. Prophet of Judah. c. 630-620 BC Josiah. King of Judah. Moves into the old territory of Israel, annexing the Assyrian provinces of Samaria, Gilead, and Galilee. c. 627 BC Chaldean Empire of Mesopotamia. 625-539 BC Also known as the New Babylonian Empire. Nabopolasser, King of the New Babylonian Empire. 625-605 BC Includes western Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine. Cyaxares. Third King of the Medes. 624-585 BC Coming out of what is now called Turkestan and pursuing the Cimmerians into Asia Minor, the Sycthians are pushed back by Cyaxares, King of the Medes. c. 624 BC An ancient forgotten text, the core of the Book of Deuteronomy, is found in the Temple of Jerusalem. 622 BC Josiah, the King of Judah, initiates a religious renewal, after the ancient text is found in the Temple of Jerusalem. The Temple is purified and all other symbols and false idols are destroyed. The forgotten law book is republished and made the basis of the religious reform of the Jews. False gods, false idols, and all false religions are rejected. Worship is centralized in the city of Jerusalem. Draco. Promulgates a very strict law code in Athens. 621 BC Habakkuk. Prophet of the Kingdom of Judah. c. 620-610 BC Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. Fifth King of Rome (Rex Romae). c.616-578 BC Conquest and destruction of Assur and all Assyrian cities by the Medes under Cyaxares, King of Media (the Medes), and Nabopolassar, King of the New Babylonian Empire. 614-608 BC The conquest and destruction of the Assyrian city of Ashur by Cyaxares, King of the Medes. 614 BC The population is wiped out and the land is made waste. Cyaxares, King of Media, besieges Nineveh but fails to take it. 614 BC The Fall of Nineveh. 612 BC Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, is conquered and destroyed by the alliance of Nabopolassar of the Chaldeans (Neo-Babylonians) and Cyaxares, King of Media (the Medes). The allies attack the Assyrian capital of Nineveh on the Tigris River. Nineveh is destroyed, never to be rebuilt. The population is wiped out and the land is laid waste. In an attempt to keep the kingdom of Assyria alive, Ashur-uballit, an Assyrian general, sets up new headquarters at Harran. Anaximander. Greek philosopher. 611-546 BC Battle of Megiddo. 609 BC Josiah, King of Judah, meets his death at the Battle of Megiddo fighting a delaying action against Pharaoh Necho (Neko) II, who was hastening to the aid of Assyria. Jehoahaz. 17th King of Judah. 609 BC Jehoiakim. 18th King of Judah. 609-598 BC Conquest and destruction of the Assyrian city of Harran (Haran). 609 BC The population is wiped out and the land laid waste. Nabopollassar of the Babylonian Chaldean dynasty annihilates the Assyrian army. Ashur-uballit is defeated. The Assyrian Empire ceases to exist. Battle of Carchemish. 605 BC Nebuchadnezzar defeats the Egyptians at Carchemish in Mesopotamia. Pharaoh Necho (Neko) II of Egypt arrives too late to help. Necho was delayed by Jewish forces under King Josiah who was killed at Megiddo. Upon arriving at Carchemish, Necho’s army is defeated, chased to Hamath and destroyed. Death of Nabopolassar. Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabopolassar, becomes king. Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, King of Babylon. 605-562 BC Babylon, with its hanging gardens (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World), is the greatest city of its time during his reign. Birth of Lao Tzu (name at birth was Li Erh) according to tradition. Author of the “Tao Te Ching”. ca.604 BC Lao Tzu is the founder of Taoism. Zarathustra. Persia. c. 600 BC Founder of Zoroastrianism. The Zend Avesta. Founding of a “League of Twelve Cities” in Italy. Modeled after the Ionian League of Cities in Greece. ca.600 BC Phocaea (Greeks) settles Marssalia in Gaul. This is the modern day Marseilles, France. c. 600 BC Joiachim (Jechoniah). 19th King of Judah. c. 598-597 BC Zedekiah. 20th and the last King of Judah. 597-586 BC Laws of Solon are promulgated in Athens. 594 BC Apries, Pharaoh of Egypt. 589-570 BC Destruction of the Kingdom of Judah. 586 BC Nebuchadnezzar II , King of Babylon, invades and destroys Jerusalem. Nebuchadnezzar destroys the Temple of Solomon and carries the inhabitants of Judah to Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar II burns the city of Jerusalem. Beginning of the “Babylonian Captivity” of the Jews. Conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar of the New Babylonian Empire, because of the alliance (see Hezekiah 715-687 BC) between Judah and Egypt. The “Babylonian Captivity” of the Jews. 586-538 BC Subsequently the Diaspora (Greek=”dispersal”) became the fate of the Jews. Conquest of Phoenicia by the New Babylonian Empire. 586 BC Only Tyre was able to withstand siege. The Phoenician city of Tyre withstands a siege by the New Babylonian Empire lasting 13 years. 585-573 BC Thales of Miletus (fl.625-545 BC). Greek natural philosopher. Thales taught the existence of the soul and the immortality of the soul. 585 BC Awed by a solar eclipse predicted by Thales of Miletus, Cyaxares, King of the Medes, breaks off an undecided battle (at the Halys River in Asia Minor) with Alyottes of Lydia. May 28, 585 BC Astyages. Fourth King of the Medes. 585-549 BC Astyages is the son of Cyaxares and will be the last King of the Medes. He will be dethroned in 549 BC by Cyrus the Great of Persia. Cyrus I. The son of Teispes (Teispid kingdom) Cyrus I is ruler of Achaemenid kingdom. c.580 BC Birth of Pythagoras of Samos (580-500 BC). 580 BC Greek natural philosopher is born on the island of Samos. The Temple of Artemis. Corfu. ca.580 BC Servius Tullius. Sixth King of Rome (“Rex Romae”). c. 578-534 BC Temple of Apollo. Syracuse, Sicily. ca.575 BC Example of early Doric style architecture. Apries of Egypt launches a military expedition against Cyrene. Greeks of Cyrene in North Africa defeat Apries of Egypt. 570 BC Amasis II, Pharaoh of Egypt. 570-526 BC Overthrows Apries of Egypt and declares himself pharaoh. Amasis II is a friend of Polycrates of Greece. Adopts parts of Greek culture. Encourages Greek settlement in Egypt. Pisistratus conquers Salamis for Athens. c.565 BC Birth of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha). Born in what is now Nepal. c.563 BC Death of Nebuchadrezzar, King of Babylon. 562 BC Effectively marks the end of Babylonian power. Croesus is the last King of Lydia. 561-546 BC Pisistratus becomes ruler of Athens. 561 BC He is expelled almost at once by Lycurgus and Megacles. Cambyses I. Ruler of the Achaemenid kingdom. c.560 BC Cambyses is the son of Cyrus I and father of Cyrus II. Attic black figure vases are made at this time. c.560 BC Temple of Hera at Samos. c.560 BC A huge Ionic style temple with double peristyle. Celtic peoples are established in Ireland and Scotland. c.560 BC First Roman census is taken. 560 BC Pisistratus regains power in Athens. c.560 BC Introduces the cult of Dionysus which derived from Thrace in what is now called Bulgaria. Cyrus II, the Great, Achaemenid King of Anzan. c.559 BC Founds the first Persian Empire. Includes vast areas of the Near and Middle East. Cyrus II rules the Persian Empire (559-529 BC). Nabonidus. 555-539 BC Briefly revives the declining Babylon. Birth of Confucius (Latinized form of K’ung-fu-tze). 551 BC Chinese philosopher, teacher, and scholar. Lives 551-479 BC. Confucius is considered by many to be the most influential figure in the history of China. He is the founder of Confucianism. Zoroaster dies (founder of Zoroastrianism). c. 551 BC The “Basilica.” Paestum, Italy. ca.550 BC Carthaginian armies campaign in Sicily. 550 BC Temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus is erected at Ephesus. ca.550 BC Enormous Ionic style temple in Asia Minor with double peristyle. Cyrus, the Great, of Persia. Deposes his overlord Astyages, the last king of the Medes (Media). Overthrows the Median dynasty and strengthens his rule in what is now called Iran. Rules Media 549-529 BC. 549 BC Croesus, King of Lydia, attacks Cyrus II of Persia at the Halys River. The battle is inconclusive. 547 BC The fall of Sardis (the capital of Lydia). 547 BC Persian conquest of Lydia. Cyrus the Great of Persia, conquers the kingdom of Lydia of Croesus. 10,000 are killed in battle. Croesus, the last King of Lydia, is defeated by Cyrus the Great of Persia. One by one the city states along the coast of Asia Minor are taken by the Persian armies of Cyrus the Great. Cyrus the Great now also rules as King of Lydia. 547-529 BC Sparta strengthens its military power in the Peloponnesus and forms the Peloponnesian League. 546 BC Cyrus the Great of Persia. Leads the Persian armies in the conquest of Greek cities of western Asia Minor. c. 546 BC Cyrus the Great of Persia. Sacks Phocaea, Greece, forcing Phocaeans to flee westward. 546 BC Some of them found Elea on the Tyrrhenian coastline. This may possibly be the last settlement of Greeks in Italy. Polycrates is tyrant of Samos. 540-520 BC Xenophanes of Colophon. Greek natural philosopher. ca.540 BC Xenophanes founds a school of philosophy at Elea in southern Italy. Elea is a recently formed Greek colony. Parmenides of Elea. 540-470 BC Greek philosopher of the Eleatic school. Temple of Apollo, Corinth. ca.540 BC Doric style temple with thick, monolithic columns. Seven of these columns are still standing. Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II), King of Persia. Persian conquest of the New Babylonian Empire. 539 BC Conquers the Chaldeans. Enters into and conquers Babylon, making it a Persian Province. Cyrus II the Great will permit the Jews to return to Jerusalem in 536 BC. Cyrus the Great. King of Babylon. 539-529 BC Cyrus the Great. 539 BC With the conquest of the New Babylonian Empire by Cyrus II, Palestine now becomes part of Persia. Some of the Jews in captivity will return in 536 BC. A revival begins under the prophets Nehemiah and Ezra. Palestine is under Persian dominion. 539-332 BC Phoenicia becomes a Persian province. 539 BC The Persian Empire of Cyrus II the Great now runs from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus Valley, and south from the Caucasus to the Arabian Sea. 539 BC Thespis. Establishes tragic drama at Athens, Greece. 539 BC Edict of Cyrus the Great. 536 BC The Jews are freed by Cyrus the Great from their “Babylonian Captivity”. The Jews are permitted to return back to Judah. Judah, however, is now a Persian province. Battle of Alalia. 535 BC Naval victory of the Etruscans, in alliance with the Carthaginians, over Phocaean Greek settlers on Corsica in the sea battle at Alalia. Naval supremacy of the Etruscans in the north western Mediterranean is thereby secured (maritime trade). Reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (Etruscan ruler). 534-509 BC Seventh and last King of Rome (“Rex Romae”). Pythagoras. Greek philosopher. Leaves his native island of Samos (because of the tyranny of Polycrates) and goes to the Greek colony of Croton in Southern Italy where he founds a group devoted to a life of contemplation and study. 531 BC Subjects studied are psychology, philosophy, astronomy, physics, arithmetic, geometry, mathematics, music, logic, and acoustics. Carthage becomes independent of Phoenicia. 530 BC Anakreon of Teos (570-488 BC) and Ibycus of Rhegium. Poets. Spend part of their lives at the court of Polycrates of Samos. ca.530 BC Temple of Ceres, Paestum. ca.530 Doric style temple with elaborate ornament and pronounced curvature of the columns. The Treasury of the Syphnians. Delphi. ca.530 BC Polycrates of Samos. Dominates the Aegean Sea with his naval fleet. c.530 BC Death of Cyrus II, the Great. 529 BC Dies in the struggles against the Massagetae in what is now eastern Iran (near the Oxus and Jaxartes Rivers). Cambyses, son of Cyrus II, kills his brother Smerdis. Cambyses II, son of Cyrus the Great, becomes King of Persia. 529 BC Rules for seven years (rules 529-522 BC). Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha). At about the age of 35, Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) begins to teach his ideas in India. Founder of Buddhism. ca.528 BC Hippias and Hipparchus, sons of Pisistratus. Succeed to his rulership of Athens. 527 BC Destruction of Siris. 527 BC Battle of Pelusium. 525 BC The Persians defeat the Egyptians after a hard fought battle at Pelusium. Conquest of Egypt by the Persians. The Persians under Cambyses II, conquer Egypt (Psammetichus III) and make it a Persian province. Cambyses II of Persia has himself crowned Pharaoh of Egypt. Egypt becomes a Persian province from 525 BC until 404 BC. Cambyses II, the King of Persia, goes mad in Egypt. 525 BC Persian rule in Egypt. 525-404 BC Red figure style vases replace black figure style vases in Athens. c. 525 BC The Etruscans dominate Italy. c. 525-509 BC Etruscan expansion in Italy is ended by Greeks at Cumae. 524 BC Death of Cambyses of Persia in Syria, on the way back to Susa, of an accidental wound. Leaves no heirs to succeed him. 522 BC Darius the Mede, son of Hystaspes, one of the chief counsellors of Cyrus the Great, is made King of Persia. 522 BC Darius I divides the Persian Empire into twenty satrapies (provinces), of which Egypt is one. Darius I rules from the Hellespont to the Indus. His rule includes all of Asia Minor and Syria, that is, the ancient Lydian and Hittite Empires, all of the previous Assyrian and Babylonian Empires, Egypt, the Caucasus, and Caspian regions, Media, Persia, and is extended into India to the Indus. Darius I rules Persian Empire. 522-486 BC Darius I. King of Persia. Expedition to Scythia. 521 BC Darius I of Persia’s conquest of Greek cities in Asia Minor causes a shift of the Greek’s cultural center westward to mainland Greece and Sicily. c.520 BC Rebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem is resumed by the Jews. The Jews are urged on by the prophet Haggai. The Temple will be completed 515 BC. 520 BC Founders of Buddhism and Jainism in India each begins to develop their alternatives to Brahmanism. c.520 BC Capture of Thebes (Luxor), and transplantation of 6,000 Egyptians to Susiana. 520 BC Cleomenes I of Sparta. Leads an abortive thrust against Attica. c.520 BC Darius I, the son-in-law of Cyrus II the Great, brings the Persian Empire to its greatest territorial extent. 520 BC Conquest of Sardinia by Carthage. 520 BC Darius I of Persia. Crushes the revolt of the false Smerdis. c.519 BC Thrusts his boundaries east beyond the Indus. Darius I of Persia founds the city of Persepolis. 518 BC Darius I of Persia. Rules from palaces at Babylon, Ecbatana, Susa, and his chief capital (from 518 BC), the newly founded Persepolis. 518 BC Hecataeus. Produces a map showing the world as a disk. 517 BC Darius I of Persia. Takes Gandhara in India and sends the Greek admiral Skylax to investigate the Indus Valley. 517-509 BC Invasion of Egypt by Darius I, King of Persia. 517 BC Secures the lands that Cambyses had previously conquered. Scythian expedition of Darius I, of Persia. c.516 BC Completion and dedication of the Temple of Jerusalem. 515 BC Hipparchus, the dictator of Athens, is killed by Harmodius and Aristogeiton. 514 BC Darius I completes the subjugation of the Indus River region. 513 BC Darius I of Persia. Leads the Persian armies into Europe by crossing the Hellespont. Darius conquers Thrace. 513 BC Darius I of Persia is unsuccessful in his campaign against the Scythians across the Bosphorus. 512 BC Expulsion of Hipparchus’s brother Hippias by the Athenians led by Cleisthenes. End of the Peisistratid tyranny. 510 BC High point of Etruscan power and civilization in Italy. c.510 BC Darius I of Persia. Persians annex the Indus Valley. c.510 BC Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and the last King of Rome, is overthrown by rebellion. 509 BC Ejection of the Tarquins (Etruscans) from Rome. End of Etruscan supremacy of Rome. Founding of the Roman Republic. 509 BC Ruled by consuls annually elected by the “comitia centuriata” as assembly. The Roman Republic will last from 509 BC to 27 BC. Treaty between the Roman Republic and Carthage. 509 BC This is the first public Roman treaty. Recognition of Carthaginian trade monopoly in the western Mediterranean Sea by Rome. Roman allies are not to be troubled by Carthage. Completion of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, called the Capitol in Rome. 509 BC Reforms of Cleisthenes. 508 BC Cleisthenes’ reforms bring democracy to Greece. Introduction of “ostracism” as a means of banishing without loss of property or privileges, citizens that are considered to be dangerous to the state. Ostracism of Cleisthenes at the instigation of Sparta. 508 BC The Etruscan ruler, Lars Porsena, attacks Rome. 508 BC Heroic defense of the bridge over the river Tiber by Horatius Cocles. Brief restoration of Etruscan dominion over Rome by the Etruscan Lars Porsena. Spartans under Cleomenes attempt to restore the aristocracy in Athens. Athenians rise up and put Cleisthenes back into power. 507 BC Death of Pythagoras of Samos. ca.500 BC Heracleitus of Ephesus. Greek natural philosopher. “On Nature.” ca.500 BC Capture of Sardinia by Greeks, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians. c. 500 BC Founding of Greek and Carthaginian colonies in Spain. c.500 BC Anaxagoras. Greek natural philosopher. 500-428 BC Persian-Greek Wars. 500-479 BC The Persians control Greek colonies on the coast of Asia Minor. Greek colonies on the coast of Asia Minor revolt against Persian rule. They receive military aid (ships) from Athens. 500 BC Ionian War. 499-494 BC Ionian Greek cities in Asia Minor revolt against Persian rule. 499-494 BC The Ionian revolt under the leadership of Aristagoras of Miletus (assisted only by Athens and Eretria) is beaten down by the Persians after initial successes. Persians advance against Sardis. Burning of Sardis by the Persians. 499 BC Battle of Ephesus. 499 BC The Persians defeat the Greeks at Ephesus. Defeat of the Persian fleet at Cyprus. 498 BC The Persians counter-attack the Greeks. c.497 BC The Persians will reconquer Cyprus and destroy the Ionian fleet near the island of Lade (494 BC). Battle of Lake Regillus. c.496 BC Roman dictator Postumius defeats the Latins at Lake Regillus. Tarquin is defeated and killed. Empedocles. Greek philosopher. 495-430 BC The capture and destruction of Miletus by the Persians. 494 BC The Ionian revolt is crushed and the inhabitants of Miletus are deported to Mesopotamia. Rome reenters the Latin League. 494 BC Latin League, under the leadership of Rome in Latium, is directed against the Etruscans. 494 BC Plebians in Rome revolt and win political rights from the patricians. 494 BC Conquest of the city of Corioli by the Romans under their general Gaius Marcius who later receives the surname Coriolanus. 493 BC Themistocles fortifies the Piraeus. 493 BC Darius I, of Persia, sends his son-in-law, Mardonius, to lead the first Persian expedition to punish Athens. 492 BC Conquest of Macedonia by the Persians under their commander Mardonius. 492 BC Miltiades, the Younger, ruler of Chersones, flees to Athens where he is elected one of the ten “strategoi”. First Persian expedition against Greece. A storm destroys the Persian fleet of Mardonius at the rocky promontory of Mount Athos. Sparta and Athens reject the Persian (Darius I) demand that all Greek city states submit (i.e. to send tokens of water and earth). 492 BC Banishment of dissident Coriolanus from Rome. 491 BC Second Persian Expedition to Greece. 490 BC Under the command of Datis and Artaphernes and accompanied by Hippias, 30,000 men are sent by the Persian King Darius I. Destruction of Eretria from the island of Euboea, and deportation of its inhabitants. Battle of Marathon. September 12, 490 BC The Persian army lands at Marathon, Greece, to march on to Athens. By the use of superior Greek military strategy, an Athenian land army numbering some 10,000 men led by Miltiades, defeats 30,000 Persians. The victory was reported by the “Marathon runner”. The Athenians defeat the Persians, turning back the second Persian invasion of Greece. Return of the Persian fleet (the second Persian expedition to Greece) to Asia Minor. 490 BC Athens is at war with Aegina. c.489-483 BC Miltiades attacks Paros but fails. 489 BC Following the failure of his campaign against Paros, Miltiades is condemned and dies in prison. 489 BC Themistocles carries through fleet building program. 487-483 BC 180 triremes (= oars arranged by threes) were completed by 481. Darius I of Persia dies while preparing still another campaign against Greece. 486 BC Accession of Xerxes I, King of Persia (reigns 486-465 BC). 486 BC Xerxes I is the son of Darius I, the Great, of Persia. Revolt in Egypt against Persian rule. 486-484 BC Xerxes I, King of Persia, crushes revolts in Babylonia. c.485 BC Xerxes I, King of Persia (to 465 BC) demands tribute from the Greek states. 485 BC Most of the Greek states refuse. Gela (Gelon), is master of Syracuse, Sicily. 485 BC Xerxes I, King of Persia. Crushes the revolt in Egypt against Persian rule. 484 BC Birth of Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484-408 BC). 484 BC Death of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha). 483 BC Wars with the Veii in Rome. 481-475 BC Period of the Warring States in China. 481-221 BC Third Persian expedition to Greece. 481-480 BC Xerxes I (Ahasuerus), King of Persia, and the son of Darius I, assembles a great host of more than 180,000 men at Sardis in Asia Minor in order to invade Greece. His Phoenicians and Egyptians build two ship bridges across the Hellespont from Abydos (Nagara) to Sestos, 2000 yards long. One bridge of planks and dirt rests on 360 ships; the other on 314 ships. Herodotus says that the army crossed for seven days and seven nights. Xerxes I, launches the third Persian expedition to invade Greece. Battle of Thermopylae. 480 BC In order to secure the retreat of the Greek army under Leonidas, the King of Sparta, the Greek rearguard, consisting of 300 Spartan warriors, supported by 5600 Thespians and Thebans, holds off the Persians in the Pass of Thermopylae until they are overcome. All of the Spartans die in battle. Persians move on and devastate Boeotia, Athens, and Attica. 480 BC The population of Athens is evacuated to nearby islands. 480 BC Destruction of the Acropolis. Burning of the great city of Athens. Battle of Artemisium. 480 BC Naval battle fought between Greeks and Persians. Indecisive. Battle of Salamis. September 480 BC (Part of the Persian Greek Wars). Athenians, led by the Spartan Eurybiades who followed the plans of Themistocles, destroy the Persian fleet near Salamis, under the eyes of King Xerxes I in the Battle of Salamis. Limited by the narrowness of the strait, the superior Persian fleet had no maneuverability against the 310 Greek ships. Themistocles’ fleet sinks between 200-300 out of the 600 Persian ships. Unpursued by the Greeks, the Persian fleet withdraws to Asia Minor. Mardonius moves the Persian army into winter quarters in Thessalia. The great city of Athens is saved. The mother city, Tyre, commands Carthage to attack the Sicilian Greeks (i.e. the Greeks in Sicily). 480 BC Carthaginians attack Sicily. 480 BC The Battle of Himera. 480 BC The Carthaginians under Hamilcar I (ruled 510-480 BC) are defeated by Gelon (Gela) of Syracuse at Himera, Sicily. Hamilcar I dies in battle. Syracuse gains control of Sicily. Temple of Zeus Olympius, Agrigentum. ca.480-06 BC This is the largest of the Doric style temples. Polygnotus. Athenian. Paints large masterpieces. c.480 BC Fourth Persian expedition against Greece. 479 BC Battle of Platea. 479 BC The Greeks rally about 70,000 men from Greek states, under the Spartan general Pausanias. The Fourth Persian expedition under Mardonius against Greece is defeated and turned back on land at the Battle of Platea, near the Attica border. Mardonius dies in battle. Battle of Mycale (near Miletus). A Greek naval force under Leotychides, the King of Sparta, defeats the Persians at sea in the Battle of Mycale. The Persian army is virtually destroyed. Completion of the repulse of the Persian invasion. 479 BC Persia loses Sestos and the Hellespont. The Persians are expelled from Greece. 479 BC Capture and destruction of Babylon by the Persians. 479 BC City walls surrounding Athens and Piraeus are rebuilt despite the objection of Sparta. 479 BC The Ionian city states are liberated by a Greek fleet under the Spartan general Pausanias. 478 BC Byzantium, Bosporus, and Cyprus are recaptured from the Persians by the Greeks. Delian League. c. 478 BC Aristides (opponent of Themistocles) founds the Delian League (First Attican Maritime Alliance, composed of Athens and the Ionian cities) as a defense against the Persians. Cimon, Athenian general, and son of Miltiades. Continues the defensive war against the Persians, commanding the fleet of the newly formed Delian League. 477-449 BC Beginning of the ascendancy of Athens in Greece. 477 BC Death of the 306 Roman Fabii in battle with Etruscan forces. 477 BC Sicily is threatened by the southward expansion of Etruria from the mainland of Italy. 475 BC Battle of Cumae (Cyme). 474 BC Defeat and destruction of the Etruscan fleet, by a fleet of Sicilian Greeks of Syracuse, Sicily, under Hiero I of Syracuse, brother of Gelon (Gela) of Syracuse, in the naval battle of Cyme (Latin, Cumae). Aeschylus (525-456 BC). “The Persians”. Tragedy. 472 BC Banishment of Themistocles from Athens. 471 BC First Publilian Laws in Rome. 471 BC Temple of Zeus at Olympia. ca. 470-460 BC Early classical masterpiece of Doric order. This is the focal point of Greece’s greatest international sanctuary. Ludovisi Throne. ca. 470-460 BC Enigmatic work probably produced somewhere in Southern Italy. “The Charioteer”. Bronze sculpture. Delphi. ca. 470 BC Themistocles. Dies as a Persian vassal at Magnesia on the Meander River. 470 BC Voyage of Hanno. Carthaginian. c. 470 BC Sails down the coast of Africa as far as what is now called Cameroon. Birth of Socrates (469 BC-399 BC). 469 BC Athens becomes the leading member of the Delian League and subdues dissident members beginning with Naxos. 468 BC Battle of Naxos. 468 BC Aeschylus (525-456 BC). “Seven Against Thebes”. 467 BC Rhegium and Taras are defeated with heavy losses by the native Italian Iapyges (native inhabitants of Southern Italy). 467 BC Battle of Eurymedon River. 466 BC Athens takes the offensive in the struggle against Persia. Athenian general Cimon destroys the Persian army and navy at the Eurymedon River in Asia Minor. Victory of Cimon over the Persians. Final defeat of the Persians. Assassination of Xerxes I, King of Persia. August 465 BC Artaxerxes I, his son, becomes King of Persia. Reign of Artaxerxes I: 465-424 BC. The population of Sparta is greatly reduced in numbers because of a series of disastrous earthquakes. 465 BC Third Messenian War. 464-455 BC Spartans win. Second Revolt in Egypt (under Inaros) against Persian rule. 462-454 BC Alliance of Athens with Argos and Thessaly. 462 BC Ostracism of Cimon. 462-454 BC Murder of Ephialtes. Pericles comes to prominence in Athens, Greece. 461 BC “Temple of Poseidon”. Paestum, Italy. ca. 460 BC First Greek temple built in Italy that reflects the Greek classical style of architecture. Aeschylus (525-456 BC). “Prometheus Bound”. 460 BC Hippocrates. Greek physician. 460-377 BC Democritus of Abdera. Greek natural philosopher. 460-370 BC Postulates the atomic structure of matter. Outbreak of the First Peloponnesian War. 460 BC First Peloponnesian War (460-446 BC). Athens wars against Sparta and the Peloponnesian cities which are allied with Sparta. Return of the prophet Ezra to Jerusalem. 458 BC Ezra. Jewish prophet. c. 458 BC A law promulgated by Ezra forms the basis of the religion of the Law, which was the gift of God. The Pentateuch, the Sacred Law, is the first five books of the Old Testament. Battle of Aegina. 458-457 BC (Part of the First Peloponnesian War). Aegina allied itself with the Peloponnesians. The Athenians under Leosthenes conquers the island of Aegina and forces it to accept membership in the Athenian dominated Delian League. War between Athens and Corinth. Defeat of the Corinthians by the Athenians. 458 BC Aeschylus (525-456 BC). “The Oresteia”. Considered by many to be his greatest work. 458 BC Sparta joins the war against Athens. 457 BC Battle of Tanagra. 457 BC (Part of the First Peloponnesian War). The Spartans defeat the Athenians. Battle of Oenophyta. 457 BC (Part of the First Peloponnesian War). Myronides rallies the Athenians and crushes the Thebans and their allied armies at Oenophyta. War of the Spartans and Boeotians against Athens. 457-446 BC Cincinnatus becomes Roman dictator and rescues the Roman army surrounded by the neighboring Aequi and saves the Roman Republic. 458 BC Persian army reaches Egypt under the Persian general Megabyxus.456 BC Athen’s land empire reaches its greatest extent. 456 BC Jewish law forbids marriage between Jews and gentiles (non-Jews). 456 BC Athenians aid an anti-Persian revolt in Egypt. 456-454 BC Athenians are defeated by the Persian army under Megabyxus. 454 BC The Athenian expedition to aid Egypt ends in disaster. End of the second revolt of Egypt against Persian rule. 454 BC Achaea joins the Athenian alliance. 454 BC Three Roman senators are sent to Athens in order to study the laws that were developed by Solon. 451 BC Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484-408 BC). “History of the Persian Wars.” c.451 BC The Decemvirate in Rome. 451-449 BC Law of the Twelve Tablets. 451-450 BC Codification of Roman Law by the Decemvirs. The Law of the Twelve Tablets is the basis of all Roman Law. Roman Law is codified for the first time. Temple of Hephaestus; also called the Temple of Theseus (so-called “Theseum”), Athens. Well preserved Greek temple. ca. 450-440 BC Myron. Greek sculptor. “Discobolus”. Sculpture. ca. 450 BC Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484-408 BC). Greek historian. His journey to Egypt. c. 450 BC Thucydides (471-402 BC). Greek historian. “History of the Peloponnesian Wars”. 450-406 BC Battle of Salamis. 449 BC Persia is defeated by an Athenian force in Greek Cyprus. Peace of Callias. Peace between Greek states and Persia. 449 BC Persia agrees to acknowledge the independence of Greek cities. War between Athens and Sparta. 448 BC Spartan expedition to Delphi. Building of the Acropolis, Athens. 448-433 BC The Acropolis is designed by Ictinus and Callicrates. Much of the sculpture is by Phidias. Valerian and Horatian Laws in Rome. 448 BC Boeotian League. 447 BC Emergence of the Boeotian League as a hostile rival to the Athenian League. Battle of Coronea. 447 BC (Part of the First Peloponnesian War). Boeotia defeats the Athenians at Coronea. End of the First Peloponnesian War (460-446 BC). 446 BC Thirty Years Peace between Athens and Sparta. 446 BC Athens is forced to conclude the Thirty Year Peace with Sparta and to recognize the hegemony of Sparta in the Peloponnesus. Athens surrenders land empire. Next to Persia and Carthage, Athens is now the third great power in the Mediterranean world. Canuleian Laws in Rome. 445 BC End of the Greek war with Persia. 445 BC Return of the prophet Nehemiah to Jerusalem. 444 BC Nehemiah will rebuild the walls of the city of Jerusalem. Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sunium is built. c. 445 BC Consular Tribunes. Rome appoints military tribunes with consul’s powers. 444 BC Pericles founds the colony of Thurii in Southern Italy. c. 443 BC Herodotus is one of its citizens. Nehemiah completes the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem. 443 BC Pericles is elected Athenian general for fifteen years. 443 BC Athens is under the administration of Pericles (b.499-d.429 BC). Athens reaches the zenith of its greatness. 443-429 BC Ostracism of Thucydides, the Greek historian, by Pericles. 443 BC Syracuse becomes the chief power in Sicily. c. 443 BC Parthenon frieze. Athens, Greece. ca. 442-438 BC Sophocles (497-406 BC). Greek playwright. “Antigone”. c. 442 BC Polyclitus. Greek sculptor. “Canon”. Book on proportions written for sculptors. ca. 440 BC Polyclitus. “Doryphoros” (the spear bearer). ca. 440 BC Ideal athletic type by the greatest classical master of proportion. Temple of Hera. Agrigento. ca. 440 BC Doric style architecture. Athens under Pericles takes Samos. 440 BC Plebian revolt in Rome. 439 BC Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus is appointed dictator. Herodotus. Greek historian. Recites his “History of Athens”. 438 BC Mnesicles. “The Propylaea”. 437-432 BC Acropolis, Athens. Parthenon pediments. 437-32 BC Corcyra (Corfu) crushes Corinthian fleet at Leucimme. 435 BC Phidias completes his statue of Zeus (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) for the temple of Zeus, Olympia. ca. 435-430 BC Gold and ivory statue, now lost. One of the most famous statues of the ancient world. The Parthenon is completed (begun c. 448 BC) in Athens on the Acropolis. Designed by Ictinus and Callicrates. 432 BC It is 228 feet long and 102 feet wide. Doric style columns are 33 feet high. Roof height is 60 feet. Finest of all Greek buildings, a Doric style temple with Ionic style features. Revolt of the Potidaeans against Athens. 432 BC The Archidamian War. 431-421 BC Marks the start of the Second Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC). The Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta begins out of Spartan-Athenian rivalry and involves most of the Greek city-states.431 BC Causes: The alliance of Corcyra with Athens against Sparta. The Athenian attack on Potidaea (432 BC). The Athenian commercial blockade of Megara. This led to Sparta’s demand for autonomy for all the cities of the league. “Funeral Oration” of Pericles. 431 BC Recorded by the Greek historian, Thucydides. Euripides (480-406 BC). Greek author. “Medea”. 431 BC Rome expands against the Aequi and the Volsci. 431 BC Malachi. The Book of Malachi. 430 BC Birth of Xenophon (b.430-d.354 BC). Greek. 430 BC Plague in Athens. 430-423 BC A terrifying plague from the east strikes Athens. Its spread could not be arrested, and people just died in the streets with no one to take care of them. One third of the population perished, and many others were left crippled. Possibly smallpox or typhus. The destruction of Athens. 430 BC Pericles (495-429 BC) dies of the plague. 429 BC The Acropolis is completed. 429 BC The birth of Plato (429-347 BC). 429 BC Euripides (480-406 BC). Greek author. “Hippolytus”. 428 BC Sophocles (c.497-406 BC). Greek author. “Oedipus Rex”. 427 BC Temple of Athena Nike. Acropolis, Athens. ca. 427-424 BC Ionic style columns. General war starts in Sicily. 427 BC The Melian affair. 425 BC The Dorian island of Melos is assessed tribute by Athens. Melos justifiably refuses to pay the tribute. Xerxes II becomes King of Persia. 424 BC He is assassinated two months later by his brother Sogdianus. Xerxes II is succeeded by Darius II (rules 424-404 BC). End of the plague at Athens. 423 BC Battle of Amphipolis. 422 BC (Part of the Peloponnesian War). Victory of the Spartans over the Athenians. Both Brasidas, the Spartan general, and Cleon, the Athenian leader, die in battle. Peace of Nicias. 421 BC Brings temporary respite from the Peloponnesian War fought between Sparta and Athens. Peace is negotiated by Nicias. Supposed to have lasted for 50 years. Alcibiades is in power at Athens. 421 BC Erechtheum on the Acropolis at Athens. ca. 421-406 BC Ionic style temple built on different levels. Porch of the caryatid is on the south side. Sparta quickly breaks the “Peace of Nicias” (421 BC) with Athens by making a treaty with Boeotia. 420 BC Temple of Apollo Epicurius. Bassae. ca. 420 BC Designed by Ictinus. This is a Doric style temple that is oriented north and south. Contains first Corinthian style column. Invasion of Gauls into northeastern Italy devastating Etruria. ca. 420 BC Euripides (480 BC-406 BC). Greek author. ”Electra”. Tragedy. c. 420 BC Sparta invades Argos and defeats the Athenians, the Argives, and the Mantineans at Mantinea. 418 BC Athens tries to pressure the island of Melos into its empire. Melos refuses. Capture of the island of Melos by Athens. 416 BC The destruction of the Dorian island of Melos by Athens. Death of Nehemiah. c.415 BC Jewish High Priests rule under Persian authority. Euripides (480-406 BC). Greek writer. “The Trojan Women”. 415 BC Segesta in Sicily asks Athens for aid in its military problems against Syracuse and Selinus. 415 BC Athens decides on a military expedition to Sicily (415-413 BC) under Alcibiades, Lamachus, and Nicias. 415 BC Athens prepares to send an ill fated expedition to Sicily. 415 BC Renewal of the war between Athens and Sparta. The Athenians invade the island of Sicily. 415 BC Accusal of Alcibiades of sacrilege by the Athenians during his absence (mutilation of the Hermae). 415 BC Withdrawal of Alcibiades from the Sicilian expedition. Alcibiades changes his allegiance from Athens to the Spartans. Battle of Syracuse. 415 BC-413 BC Attempted siege of Syracuse, Sicily by the Athenians. Athens is defeated by the Syracusans and a Spartan contingent under Gylippus to aid them. Decelean War also called the Ionian War (414-404 BC). 414 BC Peloponnesian War enters into its decisive stage. Euripides. “Iphigenia in Tauris”. c. 414 BC Athenian attack on Sicily fails. 413 BC As a result of the defeat of Athens at Syracuse, Athens loses important land and sea forces in Sicily. Destruction of the Athenian fleet in the harbour of Syracuse. 413 BC Destruction of the Athenian army on the Asinaros. Execution of the Athenian general Nicias after the Sicilian disaster. 413 BC Greek prisoners are forced to work in stone quarries. Decline of Athenian power. Seizure of the Attic stronghold of Decelea by the Spartans during the Decelean War (414-404 BC). 413 BC Following the advice of Alcibiades, the Spartans occupy the fortress of Decelea in order to lay waste to the Athenian lands. Peloponnesian ships force Athens to end the siege of Miletus. 412 BC Treaty between Persia and Sparta. 412 BC Sparta recognizes Persian rule in Asia Minor, but not in Greece. Revolution in Athens. 411 BC “Government of the 5000” seizes power. Democracy is soon restored. Return of Alcibiades to Athens. Alcibiades is elected ”strategos”. 411 BC Battle of Cynossema. 411 BC Alcibiades sends a force of 76 triremes into the eastern Aegean Sea under Generals Thrasybulus and Theramenes. This fleet defeats the Peloponnesian navy commanded by Mindarus. Battle of Cyzicus (in Asia Minor). 410 BC Athenians led by Alcibiades defeat the Spartan fleet at Cyzicus. A Spartan peace offer is rejected. Hannibal (this is not the Hannibal of the future Punic Wars) and Himilco begin the Carthaginian invasion of Sicily (c. 409-341 BC). 409 BC Battle of Selinus-Himera. 409 BC Destruction of the Sicilian cities Selinus and Himera by some 50,000 Carthaginians under Hannibal (not the Hannibal of the Punic Wars). Founding of Rhodes. 408 BC Failure of the attempt of the Medes to throw off Persian rule. 408 BC Capture of Byzantium by the Athenians. 408 BC Alcibiades, Athenian general, quells revolt in subject states. 408 BC Battle of Notium. 407 BC (Part of the Peloponnesian War). Defeat of the Athenian fleet off Notium by the Peloponnesian fleet under the command of Lysander. Plato (429-347 BC). Becomes the student of Socrates (469-399 BC). 407 BC From 407 until the death of Socrates in 399 BC. Battle of the Arginusae Islands. 406 BC (Part of the Peloponnesian War). Athenian fleet under Conon defeats a Peloponnesian fleet under Callicratidas. Proves to be the last Athenian victory in the war. In spite of the plea of Socrates, eight leaders of the Athenian fleet are condemned to death (because shipwrecked crews had not been rescued). Battle of Acragas (Agrigentum). 406 BC Conquest of Acragas in Sicily by the Carthaginians. Battle of Aegospotami. 405 BC The Spartans under Lysander defeat the Athenian fleet off Aegospotami. Destruction of the Athenian fleet. This defeat will lead to the capture of Athens in 404 BC. Peace treaty between Carthage and Syracuse, Sicily. 405 BC Egypt declares its independence from the Persian Empire. 405 BC Euripides (480-406 BC). Greek author. “Iphigenia in Aulis”. Tragedy. Posthumous. 405 BC Veii (Rise of Rome). 405 BC-396 BC The Romans lay siege to the southern Etruscan stronghold of Veii, 12 miles north of Rome. The Romans will finally take Veii in 396 BC. Artaxerxes II. King of Persia. 404 BC-358 BC Revolt of his younger brother Cyrus, aided by Greeks (404 BC). Athens is forced to surrender to Sparta. Nov. 404 BC Theramenes surrenders Athens to the Spartan general Lysander. End of the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. 404 BC Sparta is victorious. End of the Athenian Empire. 404 BC Murder of Alcibiades while he is in exile by order of Sparta. 404 BC Spartan Empire. 404-371 BC Sparta is now the leading Greek power. Sparta is supreme in the Greek territories. Egypt very briefly regains its independence from the Persian Empire under Pharaoh Amyrtaeus of Sais. 404-399 BC Egypt had fallen to the Persians under Cambyses II in 525 BC. Restoration of Athenian democracy by Pausanius. 403 BC Expulsion of the thirty Tyrants by Thrasybulus. Cyrus the Younger gathers his army at Sardis. 401 BC Battle of Cunaxa. 401 BC Artaxerxes II Mnemnon of Persia defeats his rebellious brother Cyrus the Younger, the satrap of Anatolia, near Babylon at Cunaxa. Cyrus the Younger is killed in battle. “Retreat of the Ten Thousand” (led by Xenophon). c. 401 BC Xenophon’s Greek army who were on the side of Cyrus the Younger, successfully withdraw to the Black Sea after the defeat of Cyrus the Younger at the Battle of Cunaxa. Only half of Xenophon’s band will survive the 4,000 mile retreat that takes two years. Plato (429-347 BC). Greek philosopher. Writes the Dialogues: “Gorgias”, “Apology”, “Crito”, “Phaedo”, “Republic”, “Phaedrus”, “The Symposium”, “Xenophon”, “Laws”, etc. c.400-347 BC Sparta declares war on Tissaphernes, Persian general. Tissaphernes besieges Cyme. 400 BC Etruscan bronze statue of Mars. 400 BC The Celtics (Celts) spread throughout Bohemia, the Carpathians, and the Ukraine. c. 400 BC War of the Spartans against Persia. 399-394 BC Under Agesilaus, Sparta renews the war to free the Ionian cities. Death of Socrates. 399 BC Socrates, Greek philosopher, is condemned to death by the Athenian state. He is made to drink hemlock (dropwort). Artaxerxes II. King of Persia. Part of the War between Persia and Greece. 398 BC Egypt and Cyprus assist Greece in the war against the Persian Empire. Return of Ezra to Jerusalem. 397 BC Dionysius I of Syracuse (432-367 BC). Fights war with Carthage. 397-392 BC Decay of Etruscan power in the Po valley as a result of Celtic incursions. 396 BC Destruction of Messana (Messina), located in northeast Sicily, by the Carthaginians. 396 BC Marcus Furius Camillus. Roman general. In a determined assault conquers the Etruscan stronghold, the city of Veii. Ends Etruscan power in central Italy. 396 BC The Romans conquer the important Etruscan city of Veii after a ten year siege they began in 405 BC. Formation of a coalition of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos against Sparta. 395 BC The Corinthian War. 395-387 BC Persia supports the allied Greek states Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos against Sparta. Battle of Haliartus. 395 BC Lysander marches a Spartan army into Boeotia to Haliartus. The Spartans are defeated by the Boeotians and a force of Thebans. Lysander is killed in battle. Battle of Nemea (also known as the Battle of Corinth). 394 BC (Part of the Corinthian War). Fought between 14,000 Spartans and 26,000 Athenians, Corinthians, Thebans, and Argives. The allies are defeated by the Spartans, losing twice as man men as the Spartans. The Spartans are obliged to retire, leaving the Isthmus in their possession. Battle of Coronea. August 394 BC (Part of the Corinthian War). Fought between the Athenians, Corinthians, Thebans, and Argives, and the Spartan general Agesilaus II. The Spartans defeat the allies after a desperate struggle. The Spartans, however, suffer so severely that Agesilaus is forced to evacuate Boeotia. Because of the attempted reorganization of the Athenian cities and the reconstruction of the fortress Athens-Piraeus, Persia and Sparta negotiated: the Bosporus was blockaded by a Persian-Spartan fleet in order to cut off Athenian grain imports from southern Russia. 394 BC Battle of Cnidus. 394 BC (Part of the Corinthian War). Fought between 120 Spartan triremes under Pisander and a superior Persian fleet under Pharnabazus, and Conan the Athenian. Conan had reorganized the Persian fleet. Pisander is defeated and killed, and his Spartan fleet is destroyed. Persia re-establishes its power in the Greek cities of Asia Minor. The naval power of Sparta is destroyed. Rebuilding of Athenian power in the Aegean by the leaders of Athens. 392 BC Marcus Furius Camillus. Roman general. Brings all of Etruria (Etruscans) under Roman rule. 391 BC Battle of Lechaeum. 391 BC (Part of the Corinthian War). Invasion of Italy by the Gauls. 390 BC Battle of Allia. 390 BC (Gallic invasion of Rome). Rome is invaded and sacked by the Gauls (a Celtic people) from northern Italy under Brennus. The Gauls invade, capture, sack, and burn Rome. The barbarians however, are fought off and withdraw (“Vae victis”). Regain of control of parts of the Aegean Sea by the Athenian navy. 389 BC Marcus Furius Camillus. Roman general. Rebuilding of Rome after the invasion of the horde of Gauls. 387 BC M.F. Camillus begins to rebuild the city of Rome. The King’s Peace (also called the Peace of Antalcidas). 387 BC End of the Corinthian War (395-387 BC). Peace between Athens and Sparta is mediated by the Persian king. The Greek cities of Asia Minor come under the rule of Persia. The remaining Greek cities receive autonomy to be guaranteed by Sparta. Plato (429-347 BC). “The Symposium”. 387 BC Dionysius I of Syracuse (432-367 BC). Siege and capture of Rhegium after a long siege. 386 BC Artaxerxes II of Persia is at war with Egypt. 385-383 BC Plato (429-347 BC). Founds the Academy in Athens. 385 BC The Academy is considered the first university in the Western world. The Birth of Aristotle of Stagira (384-322 BC). 384 BC M. Manlius Capitolinus is accused of royal ambitions. He is thrown from the Tarpeian rock. 384 BC Second war of Dionysius I of Syracuse with Carthage. 383 BC Occupation of the Theban citadel, the Cadmeia, by the Spartans. 382 BC Last native dynasty of Egypt begins. 380 BC The XXXth dynasty (380-343 BC). Plato (429-347 BC). “Phaedo”. 379 BC Plato expresses his belief in the existence and immortality of the soul. Dionysius I of Syracuse takes Crotona (Croton). 379 BC Liberation of Thebes. 379 BC Massacre of the Spartan tyrants at Thebes by Epaminondas and Peleopidas. War between Thebes and Sparta. 379-362 BC Thebes, a Greek city state, largely led by Epaminondas, establishes a democracy. 378 BC Formation of the Second Athenian Naval League against Spartan encroachments. 377 BC Athens is joined by Thebes and other city states. Battle of Naxos. 376 BC (Greek City States’ Wars). Athenian victory over Sparta off the island of Naxos. Artaxerxes II sends a Persian army against Egypt with no success. Egypt repulses the attack made by Persia. 373 BC Birth of Mencius in China. Chinese philosopher. 372 BC General peace made between Sparta and the Athenian League. 371 BC The peace however will not last to the end of the year. Battle of Leuctra. July 371 BC (Part of Greek City States’ War). Defeat of the Spartan army by Epaminondas, Theban commander. Epaminondas uses the “oblique battle order”. This first defeat of a Spartan army in open battle marks the onset of the decline of Sparta. Epaminondas of Thebes destroys Sparta’s prestige. The Thebans advance on to Laconia. Thebes is supreme in Greece. Xenophon (430-354 BC). Greek general. “Anabasis”. 371 BC Xenophon provides a first hand account of the campaigns of Cyrus the Younger. Includes a description of the 4,000 mile retreat of the 10,000 (Greeks) to the sea. The Greeks were mercenaries fighting for Cyrus the Younger. Persian satrap suppresses civil war of the Hebrews. 370 BC Thebes, Greek city state, forms the Arcadian League (370-362 BC). Purpose is to balance the power of Sparta. 370 BC Liberation of Messenia and Arcadia from Spartan control by Thebes, a Greek city state. 370 BC Alliance of Sparta and Athens is formed against Thebes, which was building its own naval fleet. 369 BC Birth of Chuang Tzu (369-286 BC). 369 BC Chinese philosopher. Taoism. Thebes founds the cities of Messene and Megalopolis and unifies almost all of Thessaly. c. 369 BC Third war of Dionysius I of Syracuse with Carthage. 368 BC Licinian Laws are passed in Rome. 367 BC Licinius and Sextius, Roman tribunes, put through reform measures that open one consulship to plebeians. Aristotle (384-322 BC). Joins the Academy of Plato (429-347 BC). c. 367 BC Rome is at war with the Gauls. 367-349 BC First Plebeian is elected to the office of Consul in Rome. 366 BC Temple of Concordia is built in Rome by Camillus. 366 BC Outbreak of renewed insurrections in Persian controlled Asia Minor. Egypt joins the rebels and invades Syria. c. 366-360 BC First drama is produced in Rome. 365 BC Battle of Cynoscephalae. 364 BC Thebes is defeated by Thessaly. Dissolution of the Arcadian League. 362 BC Battle of Mantinea. 362 BC (Part of the Greek City States’ War). The Thebans defeat Sparta and Athens. Epaminondas, the Theban general, is wounded in battle and dies fighting the coalition including Athens and Sparta. End of the Theban hegemony in Greece. Rome subdues the Latins in a revolt. 362-345 BC Egypt makes a treaty with Sparta vs. the Persians. 361 BC The Carthaginians form settlements in Spain. 360 BC Persian invasions of Egypt. 359-342 BC Nectanebo II, last native king of Egypt. Philip II becomes King of Macedonia (Macedon). 359 BC Philip II rules 359-336 BC. Artaxerxes III seizes the throne of Persia. Rules 358-338 BC. 358 BC Persian King Artaxerxes III begins to strengthen royal power over his provinces. Unification of Macedonia under Philip II. 358 BC Philip II of Macedonia conquers Amphipolis with an army reorganized using infantry phalanx. Rise of Macedonian power under Philip II. 358 BC The Social War. 357-355 BC Caused by the refusal of Byzantium, Chios, Cos, and Rhodes to pay protection money to Athens. Birth of Alexander of Macedonia (356-323 BC). 356 BC Alexander is the son of Philip II and Olympia of Macedonia. New Temple at Ephesus is begun on an even grander scale than the first. c. 356 BC Building of the first Wall of China, against invaders. c. 356 BC Athens loses the Social War (357-355 BC). 355 BC Outbreak of the Third "Sacred War" (355-346 BC). 355 BC Fought by Thebes against the Phocians, who seized Delphi. Caused by the dispute been Phocis and Thebes over the guardianship of the temple at Delphi. Conquest of Thessaly by Philip II, King of Macedonia. 352 BC Artaxerxes III. King of Persia. Sends an expedition against Egypt which fails. c.351 BC This leads to a wave of revolts in the western empire. Completion of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. c.350 BC This is the Tomb of Mausolus of Caria in Asia Minor. Becomes one of the wonders of the ancient world. Built c.359-350 BC Demosthenes. Athenian statesman. Fearing Philip II of Macedon’s expansionist plans, draws Athens into war against Philip. c. 350 BC Demosthenes delivers a series of "Philippics" against Philip II. The Phoenician cities of Sidon, Tyre, Aradus, and Byblus secede from the Persian Empire. c. 350 BC The Gauls leave Southern France and settle in Northern Italy. c. 350 BC Revolt of the Jews against Artaxerxes III, King of Persia. c. 350 BC The Temple of Jerusalem is destroyed by the Persians. c. 350 BC Heraclidus, a student of Plato, teaches the heliocentric theory of the solar system. c. 350 BC Pamphilus. Greek painter. Teaches that without mathematics and geometry no perfect art can exist. c. 350 BC The Greek theatre of Epidaurus is built. c. 350 BC Appearance of Corinthian style columns in Greek architecture. c. 350 BC Second treaty between Rome and Carthage (trade agreement). 348 BC Philip II of Macedon. Conquest of the cities of Chalcidice. 348 BC Conquest and razing of Olynthus by Philip II of Macedon. 348 BC Peace of Philocrates. 346 BC Between Athens and Macedonia. Philip II of Macedon joins on the side of the Thebans in the "Third Sacred War" (355-346 BC) fought against the Phocians. 346 BC Conquest of Phocis by Philip II of Macedon. 346 BC Aristotle (384-322 BC). Appointed to be the teacher of the future Alexander the Great, the son of Philip II, King of Macedon. 343 BC The First Samnite War. 343-341 BC Roman wars with the Samnites (Samnium). Greek cities of Sicily are freed from Carthage. 343 BC Persian reconquest of Egypt (until 332 BC). 342 BC Artaxerxes III, King of Persia, himself leads his armies against Egypt. In a brilliant campaign Artaxerxes III of Persia finally conquers Egypt. Conquest of Thrace by Philip II of Macedonia. 342 BC Birth of Epicurus of Samos. Greek philosopher. 342-271 Founder of Epicureanism. The Second Latin War. 340-338 BC Rome will defeat the revolting Latin allies. Will end in the dissolution of the Latin League and subordination of all of its members. Aristotle (384-322 BC). Lays down the foundations of the theory of music. c. 340 BC Praxagoras of Cos. Discovers the difference between arteries and veins. c. 340 BC Philip II of Macedon besieges Byzantium. 340 BC Thracian expedition of Philip II of Macedon. 339 BC Conquest of Greek city states by Philip II of Macedonia. 338-337 BC Macedonian conquests. 338-332 BC Almost 200,000 are killed in battle. Battle of Chaeronea. September 1, 338 BC (Part of Macedonian Conquests). Philip II of Macedon defeats Athens, Thebes, and other Greek city-states at the Battle of Chaeronea. Philip II is now master of all of Greece. Philip's victory over the Greeks was decided by the cavalry led by his son Alexander (age 18). Macedonia, under Philip II, is the supreme state in Greece. 338 BC Battle of Pedum. 338 BC Roman generals Gaius Maenius and Lucius Furius Camillus defeat the combined Latin armies of Antium, Lanuvium, Aricia, and Velitrae. Battle of Trifanum. 338 BC (Part of the Latin War). Roman general T. Manlius Torquatus wins a decisive victory over the Latins. The Romans annex all of Latium (the land of the Latins). End of the Latin War (340-338 BC). Assassination of Artaxerxes III of Persia. Accession of Arses to the Persian throne. 338 BC Corinthian League. 337 BC Formation of the Corinthian League of all Greek cities (with the exception of Sparta) under the patronage of Philip II, King of Macedon. Organization: a League Council at Corinth, the Macedonian king is named leader (hegemon) and supreme general, autonomy of all members of the League. Philip II of Macedonia. Makes decision for war against the Persian Empire. 337 BC Mithridates I of Pontus becomes independent of Persia. 337 BC Macedonian troops cross into Asia. 336 BC Assassination of Arses of Persia. 336 BC Accession of Darius III Codomannus, King of Persia. Darius III rules 336-330 BC. Assassination of Philip II of Macedonia at Aegae. 336 BC His son Alexander III becomes King of Macedonia (336-323 BC). Beginning of the reign of Alexander III of Macedon, the son of Philip II. Alexander rules from 336 until his death in 323 BC. 336 BC Birth of Zeno of Citium (336-263 BC). Greek philosopher. 336 BC Founder of Stoicism. Aristotle of Stagira (384-322 BC). Returns to Athens and founds his school in Lyceum at Athens. 335 BC It is known as the Peripatetic School from his practice of lecturing in a covered portico (peripatos). Alexander of Macedon. Crushes revolts of Athens, Thebes, and other Greek cities. 335 BC The destruction of Thebes, Egypt by Alexander of Macedon and the enslavement of its inhabitants. 335 BC Alexander of Macedon is in Thrace. 335 BC Temple of Athena Polias in Priene. 334 BC Dedicated by Alexander the Great. This is a finely ornamented Ionic style temple constructed according to precise mathematical measurements. Beginning of Alexander's Persian campaign. 334 BC A Greek war of revenge and a Macedonian war of conquest. Alexander has 40,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry. Alexander crosses the Hellespont and invades Asia Minor. May 334 BC Entrance of Alexander's Greco-Macedonian invasion force into Asia Minor. Alexander lands at the ancient city of Troy. 334 BC Battle of the Granicus River. June 334 BC Alexander the Great defeats the Persian satraps of Asia Minor under Darius III at the Granicus River in Asia Minor. Alexander uses the Macedonian "oblique battle order". Alexander takes the Greek cities of the coast of Asia Minor. 334 BC Sieges of Miletus (July) and Halicarnassus (August). Alexander takes Phrygia at Gordium. 333 BC Alexander cuts through the famous “Gordian knot". Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) experiences setbacks from the premature dissolution of the Ionian fleet. Summer 333 BC The Persians conquer Chios and Mytilene. Battle of Issus. November 333 BC Alexander defeats the Persians under Darius III at the Battle of Issus (using the "oblique battle order" once again) but does not give chase. Alexander captures the wife and children of Darius III of Persia. Alexander refuses Darius's offer of ransom and part of his empire. Phoenicia submits to Alexander the Great without any resistance except for Tyre (Lebanon). 333 BC Siege of Tyre. Jan.-July 332 BC Tyre falls to Alexander the Great after a seven month siege. End of the Phoenician Empire. Battle of Gaza. Sept.-Nov. 332 BC Fall of Palestine to Alexander. End of Persian rule in Palestine. Palestine had been under Persian rule since 538 BC. Palestine is now under the rule of Alexander the Great. Jerusalem is also taken. Palestine is under Greek domination. 332-198 BC Subjugation of Syria by Alexander. 332-331 BC Alexander invades and conquers Egypt from the Persians. Nov. 332 BC End of Persian rule in Egypt. Alexander the Great. Foundation of the great port of Alexandria, Egypt. 332-331 BC Campaign of Alexander the Great to the Siwa Oasis (Amonium) and the shrine of Zeus Ammon. 331 BC Alexander founds the city of Alexandria. April 331 BC Battle of Megalopolis. 331 BC Antipater of Macedon, Alexander’s governor of Greece, suppresses a Spartan uprising led by Agis III, King of Sparta. Sparta joins the Corinthian League. Alexander renews his Persian campaign. 331 BC Battle of Arbela (also called the Battle of Gaugamela). Oct. 1, 331 BC After crossing the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, 47,000 Macedonians and Greeks under Alexander defeat 250,000 Persian forces on a plain near Arbela in Mesopotamia. Once again, Alexander uses the “oblique battle order”. Darius III, King of Persia, flees for his life. End of the Persian Empire. Occupation of Pasargadae and Ecbatana by Alexander. 331 BC Alexander the Great conquers Babylon. 331 BC Entrance of Alexander into Babylon and Susa. Conquers the Fertile Crescent (Persian) and all of Mesopotamia. Alexander reaches Persepolis. Jan. 330 BC Destruction of Persepolis. 330 BC Alexander burns the palace buildings at Persepolis in revenge for the destruction of Athens and the Acropolis by the Persians in 480 BC. Seizure of the Persian gold treasures (50,000 talents). 330 BC Alexander is now in complete control of Persia. Apelles of Colophon, Greek painter, and Lysippus of Sicyon, Greek sculptor, are at the court of Alexander the Great. 330 BC Alexander conquers the whole of Central Asia. 330 BC Occupation of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis by Alexander the Great. Murder of Darius III, King of Persia, by Bessus, a cousin. July 330 BC Proclamation of Alexander the Great as King of Asia. 330 BC Polyclitus the Younger. Theater at Epidaurus. ca. 330 BC This is probably the most perfect and best preserved of the Greek theaters. Praxiteles. Greek sculptor. “Hermes and the Infant Dionysus”. ca. 330 BC From the Temple of Hera, Olympia. Pythias. Greek explorer. Circumnavigation of Britain. c. 330 BC Temple of Apollo at Didyma in Asia Minor is begun. ca. 330 BC A gigantic temple containing an open air court, still unfinished in the early AD period - 40 AD. Complete subjugation of the Vosci by the Romans (Roman Republic) after the seizure of Privernum. 329 BC Subjugation of what is eastern Persia by Alexander. 329 BC Alexander the Great conquers Bactria and Sogdiana. 328 BC Introduction of Persian court ceremonial (proskynesis = prostration) is opposed by Alexander’s Greek and Macedonian retinue. 328 BC Alexander kills Clitus, the friend of his youth, in a fit of anger. 328 BC Marriage of Alexander the Great to Roxane, the daughter of Sogdian (Bactrian) prince. 327 BC Execution of the historian Callisthenes (a nephew of Aristotle) by Alexander. 327 BC Alexander begins his invasion of India. 327 BC The Indian Campaign of Alexander is to reach the southern and eastern limits of the inhabited world. Alexander will reach as far as the Indus River valley and the Punjab. Alexander crosses the Hindu Kush mountains. May 329 BC Alexander the Great invades the Punjab. 326 BC Battle of Hydaspes River (Jhelum River). May 326 BC This is the last major battle of Alexander the Great. The Greeks and Macedonians defeat a 50,000 man Indian army that is led by Porus, in northern India. Alexander adds this Indian territory to his empire. At the Beas River, Alexander’s exhausted troops refuse to go any further east. Alexander is forced to turn back by his generals. 326 BC Construction of a fleet and a journey south down the Indus River. Return march of the army is under Alexander and Craterus through Gedrosia and Carmania Persepolis. Return journey of the fleet under Nearchus travels along the coasts of the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf to the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Alexander is in Gedrosia. Sept. 325 BC Timotheus of Miletus. “Persae” (“The Persians”). c. 325 BC Earliest extant papyrus that is written in Greek. Pytheas of Massalia. Greek explorer. Sails with a crew of 25 men to the British Isles. c. 325 BC Visits Cornwall, continues to Scotland, and possibly even Iceland or Norway. Alexander meets Nearchus in Carmania. Jan. 324 BC Alexander is at Ecbatana. Oct. 324 BC Alexander is in Babylon. April-May 323 BC Reorganization of Alexander's empire at Babylon. 323 BC The three parts of his empire are brought together under Alexander in personal union. He is Persian king in Asia, “hegemon” of the Corinthian League in Greece, and the King of Macedonia. The Death of Alexander the Great. June 13, 323 BC While preparing for further campaigns against Carthage and in the Western Mediterranean, Alexander dies of fever at Babylon. He is 33 years old. "The name of Alexander stands for the end of an epoch of world history and the beginning of a new one" (J.G. Droysen). Alexander's Empire begins to be broken up. Division of Alexander’s realms of power. 323 BC Perdiccas becomes regent for Philip III, King of Macedonia. Antipater takes charge of Macedonia and Greece. General Antigonus rules Phrygia and Lycia. Antigonus founds the Antigonid Dynasty (323-167 BC). Greek general Ptolemy Soter becomes the ruler of Egypt, Judea, and part of Syria. Lysimachus rules over Asia Minor. The Wars of the Diadochi. 323-280 BC After the death of Alexander the Great, the struggle for power began between his successors (the “Diadochi”). Alexander’s generals Antigonus, Craterus, and Ptolemy refuse to give their allegiance to Perdiccas, the regent for Philip III, King of Macedonia. The “Diadochi” fight over Alexander’s empire. Ptolemy I Soter, the son of Lagus. The Ptolemies, a Greek dynasty, will rule Egypt from 323 BC until the death of Cleopatra in 30 BC. 323 BC Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt. 323-30 BC The Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt is a Greek dynasty. Palestine is annexed with Phoenicia to Syria. 323 BC The death of Demosthenes, Greek statesman, by suicide. 322 BC Destruction of the Athenian fleet at Amorgos by Macedonia. 322 BC Aristotle (384-322 BC). Greek philosopher and a student of Plato, dies. 322 BC Reign of Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the Mauryan Dynasty (321-184 BC) and attempted to unite India. 321-297 BC Chandragupta Maurya reconquers northern India from the Macedonians. Perdiccas, the regent for Philip III, King of Macedonia, is killed. 321 BC Antipater, is regent of the Greek empire. 321 BC The Kingdom of Seleucidae (Seleucid Empire), is founded by Seleucus Nicator, who had been a general of Alexander the Great. 321 BC Rules 321 to 281 BC. Seleucas receives Babylon as his province. The Seleucid Empire (321-64 BC) will fall to the Romans in 64 BC. Second Roman-Samnite War. 321-305 BC Renewal of Roman War with the Samnites. Battle of Caudine Forks. 321 BC (Part of the Second Samnite War). The Romans are surrounded and completely beaten by the Samnites at the Battle of Caudine Forks. The Romans are allowed to withdraw under humiliating circumstances (under the yoke). Defeat of the Samnites by the Romans at Luceria. 320 BC Invasion and annexation of Syria by Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt. 320 BC Ptolemy I Soter captures Jerusalem. Ptolemy I Soter makes himself master of Cyprus. 320 BC Libya becomes an Egyptian province under Ptolemy I Soter. 320 BC Birth of Aristarchus of Samos (320-230 BC). 320 BC Aristoxenus. Defines rhythm as tripartite: speech, melody, and movement. c. 320 BC Restoration of liberty to Greek cities by Polysperchon, the successor of Antipater. 319 BC Antigonus, ruler of Macedonia, takes Lydia and Phrygia. 319 BC Agathocles is leader of Syracuse, Sicily. 319-313 BC Demetrius Phalerus governs the city of Athens. 317 BC Carthage and Syracuse are at war. 317 BC Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great, is put to death by Cassander, the son of Antipater, for killings that she had ordered. 316 BC Cassander, the son of Antipater. Founding of Thessalonica (Salonika). 316 BC Rebuilding of Thebes by Cassander, the son of Antipater. 315 BC Ptolemy Soter, Cassander, Lysimachus, and Seleucus Nicator combine forces against Antigonus, the ruler of Macedonia. 315 BC Palestine is under the rule of the Seleucids of Syria. 314 BC Syria is ruled by Seleucus Nicator, one of Alexander’s generals. 312 BC Seleucus Nicator, one of Alexander’s generals, takes Babylon from Antigonus, the ruler of Macedonia. c. 312 BC Seleucus Nicator attempts to recover provinces in India that had been conquered by Alexander the Great. 312-306 BC Appius Claudius Caecus. Begins construction on the Via Appia (the Appian Way), the great road connecting Rome to Caprua and later to Brindisi. 312 BC Appius Claudius Caecus. Completes construction of the Aqua Appia (Appian aqueduct). 312 BC Capture of the city of Jerusalem by Ptolemy I Soter, one of Alexander’s generals. 312 BC Judea is put under the rule of Antigonus I. 312 BC Until 301 BC. Colony of Jews in Alexandria, Egypt. 312 BC End of civil wars in Alexander’s empire. 311 BC Macedonia goes to Cassander as regent. Thrace goes to Lysimachus. Egypt is under Ptolemy I Soter. Asia goes to Antigonus. Battle of the Himera River. 311 BC The Carthaginians under Hamilcar besiege Syracuse in Sicily and defeat Agathocles, the ruler of Syracuse. Battle of the Vadimonian Lake (aka the Battle of Lake Vadimo). 310 BC Fought between the Roman Republic and the Etruscans. The Romans under Quintus Fabius Maximus defeat the Etruscans. The Etruscans will never rise up from this defeat. Agathocles of Syracuse invades Carthaginian territory in northern Africa to carry the war to Carthage. 310 BC Conquest of the Etruscan city of Perusia (modern day Perugia) by Roman forces. 309 BC Antigonus I of Macedonia and his son Demetrius I declare themselves kings of Macedonia in succession to Alexander the Great. 307 BC Demetrius Poliocertes, King of Macedonia, seizes the city of Athens from Cassander. 307 BC Agathocles of Syracuse returns back to Syracuse. He will make peace with Carthage the following year. 307 BC Lysimachus seizes the throne of Thrace. 307 BC Ptolemy I Soter. Greek ruler of Egypt. Begins construction of the Museum and the great Library of Alexandria in Egypt. 307 BC Third Roman Treaty with Carthage. 306 BC Agathocles of Syracuse in Sicily makes peace with Carthage. 306 BC Antigonus I assumes the title of King of Macedonia. 306 BC Alexander’s successors take the title of king. 305 BC Ptolemy I Soter declares himself King of Egypt as the founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BC). 305 BC Seleucus I Nicator himself King in Syria, as the founder of the Seleucid Empire (321-64 BC) centered in Babylon and Syria. Battle of Bovianum (the capital of Samnium). 305 BC The Samnites suffer a crushing defeat at the hands of Roman general Titus Minucius. End of the Second Samnite War (321-305 BC). Seleucus I Nicator attempts to invade India. 305 BC Seleucus I Nicator cedes his claim on India to Chandragupta in exchange for 500 war elephants. 304 BC Demetrius Poliocertes, general of the Grecia states, opposes Cassander of Macedonia. 303 BC Cassander, claims to be king of Macedonia. 302 BC Battle of Ipsus. 301 BC (Part of the Wars of the Diadochi). Great battle fought between the successors of Alexander the Great for the control of Asia Minor. The 30,000 man army of Antigonus I is defeated by an allied force under Seleucus I Nicator, Lysimachus of Thrace, Antiochus, and Cassander. Antigonus I, age 81, is killed in battle. Alexander’s empire is again divided into four chief parts. Palestine is under Egyptian rule (Ptolemy I Soter) once again. Cassander wins control of Macedonia which continues to dominate all of Greece. Lysimachus becomes ruler of Thrace and most of Asia Minor. Seleucus I Nicator of Syria. After the Battle of Ipsus, gains the provinces of Syria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. 301 BC Canon of the Old Testament under Simon the Just. 300 BC Euclid is established in the Greek city of Alexandria, Egypt. c.300 BC Treaty between the Roman Republic and Carthage. 300 BC Invasion of China by savage Huns (Xiongnu). ca.300 BC Development of the Mayan calendar at Yucatan. ca.300 BC Gives the Solar Year 365.24 days and the Lunar Month 29.52 days. This calendar is considered to be more exact than the older calendars of Babylon, Assyria, Egypt, and even Greece. Third Samnite War. 298-290 BC Rome vs. Samnium. Battle of Camerinum. The Samnites, Lucanians, Gauls, and Etruscans defeat the Romans. 298 BC Death of Cassander, King of Macedonia. 296 BC Followed by quarrels of his two sons, Antipater and Alexander. Battle of Sentinum. 295 BC (Part of the Third Samnite War). Romans under Quintus Fabius Maximus defeat the Etruscans, Sabines, Gauls, and Samnites at Sentinum. Euclid. c.295 BC “Optica.” Euclid (c. 320-230 BC). “The Elements of Geometry”. c. 295 BC Provides the first formal statement of the principles of Geometry. Siege of Athens by Demetrius I Poliorcetes, the previously exiled king of Macedonia. 294 BC Demetrius Poliorcetes becomes King of Macedonia (294-288 BC). Romans under Lucius Papirius Cursor defeat the Samnites at Aguilonia. Roman Peace is made with the Etruscans. The Etruscans are now subject to the Roman Republic. 293 BC Colossus of Rhodes (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World). A bronze statue, more than 100 feet tall, of the sun god, Helios, was constructed on a promontory overlooking harbor. By Chares. c.290-275 End of the Third Samnite War (298-290 BC). 290 BC Roman victory over the Samnites in Central Italy. Roman Peace with the Samnites, who are obliged to do military service. Romans take control of Samnium in Italy. Messina is seized by Mamertine pirates. 289 BC Syracuse in Sicily is under the Greek King Hiero. Defeat of the Romans by the Senones, a Gaulish tribe, at Arretium. 289 BC Athens revolts against Demetrius Poliorcetes, King of Macedon. 287 BC Lysimachus and Pyrrhus of Epirus attack Demetrius Poliorcetes. 287 BC Demetrius I of Macedonia is deposed by an army revolt and replaced by Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. Lysimachus, one of Alexander’s former generals, drives Pyrrhus out of Macedonia. Lex Hortensia (Law of Hortenius). 287 BC The Roman ruler Quintus Hortensius passes a law making the plebians legal equals of the patricians. End of the long struggle between the Patricians and Plebians in the Roman Republic. Birth of Archimedes of Syracuse (ca.287-212 BC). ca.287 BC Archimedes is the greatest mathematician and engineer of the BC era. Makes the following discoveries in mathematics and physics. Anticipation of integral calculus. “On Method.” Determination of the Specific Weight of Objects. Engines hurling projectiles during the defense of Syracuse against the Romans. Discovery of the laws of floating bodies establishing the study of hydrostatics. The Library of Alexandria in Egypt is completed. c.286 BC Rome defeats the Gauls, Etruscans, and Greeks, and occupies other Greek cities in Italy, except for Tarentum. 285-282 BC Abdication of Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt. 285 BC He is succeeded by his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Ptolemy II inherits Egypt from his father, Ptolemy I Soter. Ptolemy II Philadelphus rules 285 to 247 BC. Lysimachus, one of Alexander’s former generals, takes over all of Macedonia and consolidates his position in Greece. 284 BC Livius Andronicus. 284-204 BC Translator of the Odyssey from Greek into Latin. Capture of Corsica by the Romans. 283 BC Ptolemy I Soter dies. 283 BC Death of Demetrius Poliorcetes. 283 BC Outbreak of the Tarentine (Pyrrhic) Wars (282-272 BC). 282 BC Roman War with Tarentum. Tarentum attacks Thurii and starts Rome’s war with Pyrrhus of Epirus. Tarentum’s sphere of interest is encroached upon by Roman assistance to Thurii (against the Lucanians), Locri, and Rhegium. Open war follows when a Roman fleet is attacked in the harbour of Tarentum, which it was not allowed to use by the terms of a treaty of 303. Battle of Corupedium. 281 BC (Part of the Wars of the Diadochi). Seleucus I defeats and kills Lysimachus, age 80 (Macedonia). Seleucus becomes undisputed master of Asia Minor. Formation of the Achaean League. 281 BC Seleucus I Nicator of Babylon and Syria is assassinated. 281 BC Seleucus I is the last of the generals of Alexander the Great. His son, Antiochus I Soter succeeds Seleucus I Nicator as the ruler of the Seleucid Empire (Syria). Antiochus I Soter rules the Seleucid Empire 281-261 BC. The Greeks of Sicily and Italy are alarmed at the spread of Roman power in Magna Graecia at the southern end of the Italian peninsula. They seek help from Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. 281 BC Landing of Pyrrhus, the King of Epirus, on the western coast of Lucania, Italy with an army of almost 30,000 men. 281 BC Battle of Heraclea. 280 BC Tarentum (modern Taranto) allies with Pyrrhus, the King of Epirus, and defeats the Romans at the Battle of Heraclea. Pyrrhus leads at the head of his army of over 25,000 mercenaries, 3,000 Thessalian mounted men, and 26 war elephants. The Bruttians, Lucians, and Samnites join forces with Pyrrhus. Mithridates. Establishment of the kingdom of Pontus on the Black Sea. ca.280 BC Sosthenes. Is elected “strategos” and conquers Macedon from the Seleucid Empire. Macedon will fall to the Romans in 146 BC. 280 BC Colossus of Rhodes is built. ca.280 BC Lighthouse at Alexandria on the island of Pharos is built. c. 280-275 BC Battle of Ausculum. 279 BC Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, defeats the Romans again at the Battle of Ausculum in their own territory. However, Pyrrhus of Epirus suffers great losses (“Pyrrhic victory”). His peace offer, demanding the vacating of Graecia Magna (lower Italy) is rejected by the Roman Senate. Carthage forms an alliance with Rome in order to repel Pyrrhus of Epirus. Carthage sends an auxiliary fleet to Ostia, under the leadership of Mago. Pyrrhus of Epirus lands in Sicily. 278 BC Pyrrhus of Epirus. 278-275 BC Successful campaigns of Pyrrhus against the Carthaginians in Sicily. Called by the Greek cities, he conquered all the Carthaginian cities with the exception of Lilybaeum. His aim to create a kingdom of Sicily and southern Italy was thwarted by the opposition of the Greek cities and their surreptitious alliance with Carthage. Pyrrhus returned to Italy after suffering great losses. Invasion of Macedonia and Greece by the barbarian Gauls. c.278 BC The Gauls invade Asia Minor. 277 BC The Gauls found the kingdom of Galatia in Asia Minor. Antigonus II Gonatus of Macedon. Defeats the Celts at Lysimacheia. 277 BC Antigonus II Gonatas, becomes King of Macedonia. 276 BC He is a descendant of Antigonus I, one of Alexander’s generals. He is master of all of Greece except for Sparta. Rules 276-239 BC. Antigonus II founds the Antigonid Dynasty in Macedonia. The Antigonid Dynasty in Macedonia will last 276-167 BC. Hiero II. Greek King of Syracuse. 275-215 BC Battle of Beneventum. 275 BC After a disastrous repulse by the Carthaginian fleet during an attack upon the Roman camp at Beneventum, Pyrrhus is defeated by the Romans. Pyrrhus is forced to return back to Epirus. Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. Leaves Italy from the city of Rhegium and returns back to Greece. 275 BC Carthage takes all of Sicily except for the eastern end. The Romans come all the way down southern Italy. Romans capture the Greek colonies in southern Italy (Graecia Magna). End of history of Babylon. 275 BC The Babylonians re-establish the new city of Seleucia. Completion of the lighthouse at Pharos, Alexandria, Egypt. c.275 BC Pyrrhus of Epirus invades Macedonia, defeats Antigunos II Gonatas, and is proclaimed king. 274 BC First Syrian War. 274-271 BC Ptolemy II, of Egypt, and Antiochus II of the Seleucid Empire are at war. Asoka, Emperor in India, grandson of Chandragupta, rules the northern two thirds of India. Ashoka is a Mauryan emperor. c.274-236 BC Makes Buddhism the state religion. Suppresses Hinduism. Ptolemy II of Egypt. Sends ambassadors from Ptolemaic Egypt to the Roman Republic. 273 BC The Roman Republic sends an embassy to Ptolemaic Egypt. 272 BC Roman defeat of Tarentum (modern Taranto). 272 BC Peace after the surrender of Tarentum to the Romans. Romans conquer the Greek cities of central and southern Italy. These Greek cities become allies of the Roman Republic. Roman domination of Southern Italy is secured. End of the Roman War with Tarentum (282-272 BC). Romans continue the construction of the Via Appia (the Appian Way) from Capua to Tarentum and Brundisium. c.272 BC Death of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. 272 BC Pyrrhus besieges Sparta and Argos. Pyrrhus is killed. Antigonas is restored. Carthage comes to the aid of Hiero II, King of Syracuse, and puts a Carthaginian garrison at Messina, Sicily. 270 BC Roman wars with the Umbrians and Etruscans. 270-266 BC Rome will gain control of all of Italy. Hiero II, King of Syracuse. Suppresses the Mamertine pirates of Messina, Sicily. c. 269 BC Romans capture the city of Rhegium. 268 BC Conquest of Calabria by the Romans (the Roman Republic). 268 BC The Roman subjugation of Italy is completed. Chremonidean War. 266-262 BC Athens and Sparta are allied in war against Macedonia. First contact of the Romans with Greek medicine through Greek prisoners of war. 265 BC First gladiatorial games in Rome in the Forum. 264 BC The Mamertine pirates of Messina, Sicily, appeal to Rome. 264 BC The “Mamertines” (sons of Mars, Campanian mercenaries), occupying Messana, appeal to Rome for help against Hiero II, King of Syracuse. First Punic War (also called Carthaginian War). 264-241 BC Between Rome and Carthage. Fought over Sicily. Battle of Messina. 264 BC Rome dispatches a military expedition to Messina, Sicily, which marks the beginning of the First Punic (or Carthaginian) War against Carthage, a rich commercial seaport on what is now the Bay of Tunis. Following the landing of the Roman army, Syracuse and Carthage form an alliance against the Romans (Roman Republic). The Romans, under Appius Claudius Pulcher, defeat the combined armies of Syracuse (Hiero II) and Carthage, at Messana (Messina). The Romans capture Messina, Sicily. Messina becomes a free city under the protection of Rome. After the defeat of their armies at Messana, Hiero II, King of Syracuse, sues for peace and allies himself with the Romans. The Romans will conquer Sicily as far as Agrigentum (261 BC). Founding of the kingdom of Pergamon by Eumenes I. 263 BC Pergamum located in Asia Minor breaks away from Antiochus I of the Seleucid Empire (Syria). Eumenes I founds Pergamum’s Attalid Dynasty (263-133 BC). End of the Chremonidean War (266-262 BC). 262 BC Athens and Sparta fight in revolt against Antigonus of Macedonia. Antigonus takes Athens. Athens is left under Macedonian control. End of the independence of Athens. Antiochus II Theos. Rules the Seleucid Empire. 261-246 BC First Roman fleet (120 ships) is built. 260 BC Built by Gaius Duilius with the assistance of South Italian Greeks. Ships were modelled after a 5 oared Carthaginian vessel that they had found stranded. Rome begins to become a naval power. Spread of Ptolemaic (Greek Egypt) influence from Egypt down the Red Sea and into Arabia. 260 BC Battle of Mylae. 260 BC (Part of the First Punic War). Romans under Consul Gaius Duilius defeat Carthage at the naval Battle of Mylae in northwestern Sicily. With the invention of the boarding bridge, land war tactics are used by the Romans in naval warfare. Aristarchus of Samos (320-230 BC). Greek philosopher. c.260 BC Makes observations and calculations leading to the following conclusions. The Earth is much smaller than the Sun. The Earth rotates on an axis, an inclined axis of rotation. The Earth revolves around the Sun (heliocentric theory). Explanation of the seasons. Second Syrian War. 260-253 BC Ptolemy II of Egypt against Antiochus II of the Seleucid Empire and Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedonia. Antiochus II recovers some lost land in Asia Minor in the Second Syrian War against Ptolemy II of Egypt. Battle of Tyndaris (modern Tindari). 257 BC A Roman fleet under Gaius Atilius Regulus defeats Carthaginian fleet. Battle of Ecnomus. 256 BC (Part of the First Punic War). The Roman fleet defeats Carthage at the naval Battle of Cape Ecnomus. This victory enables the Romans to land in north Africa. Roman general Gaius Atilius Regillus lands an invasion force in north Africa near Carthage itself. The Romans advance to Carthage, which sued for peace, but then rejected the severe Roman peace conditions. Liberation of Athens by Antigonus II Gonatas. 255 BC Athens joins the Achaean League. 255 BC Battle of Tunes (modern Tunis). 255 BC (Part of the First Punic War). Utilizing cavalry and war elephants, the Carthaginians under Xanthippus, the Spartan general fighting for Carthage, are victorious over the Romans who are under Marcus Atilius Regulus. Roman general Regillus is captured near Carthage. A Roman fleet transporting the survivors is destroyed by a storm. The Romans for the moment give up naval warfare. However they conquer Sicily, except for the Carthaginian bases of Lilybaeum, Drepanum, and Eryx. Battle of Panormus. 254 BC (Part of the First Punic War). Cornelius Scipio’s newly built Roman fleet is victorious over Carthage at the harbor of Panormus (modern day Palermo), Sicily. Rome takes Panormus in Sicily. Peace between Ptolemaic Egypt and the Seleucid Empire (Syria). 253 BC Antiochus II of the Seleucid Empire marries Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy II of Egypt. Rome defeats Hasdrubal of Carthage. 251 BC Archimedes (287-212 BC). Greek mathematician. c. 250 BC “On the Sphere and the Cylinder”. Gives formulas for calculating the volume of a sphere and a cylinder. “Measurement of the Circle”. Gives an approximation of the value of “pi”. “On Floating Bodies”. Presents what is now called “Archimedes Principle” and begins the study of hydrostatics. Writes works on two and three dimensional geometry. Studies circles, spheres, and spirals. Siege of Lilybaeum by the Romans. 250-241 BC The fortress of Lilybaeum, located on the west coast of Sicily, is defended by a 10,000 man garrison. Diodotus I becomes king of an independent Bactria. 250 BC Invasion of Britain by La Tène, an Iron Age people. c. 250 Asoka, the ruler of the Maurya Empire in India, erects columns 40 feet high inscribed with his laws. c. 250 BC The Septuagint. ca.250 BC Translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek (Septuaginta). Another center of Judaism is developed in Egypt (Alexandria). Battle of Drepanum. 249 BC (Part of the First Punic War). Modern: Trapani, Sicily. Destruction of the Roman fleet by Carthaginian navy at Drepanum. Founding of the Kingdom of Parthia by Arsaces I (Arsores). 247 BC The Parthians revolted against the Seleucid Empire. The Parthian Empire will end in 226 AD. Reign of Arsaces I (Arsores) of Parthia. 247-217 BC Ptolemy III, Euergetes, King of Egypt. 247-221 BC Extends his empire by conquests in Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persia, Susiana, and Media. Extends his influence as far as Thrace and Macedonia. Hamilcar Barca, the father of Hannibal, takes command of the Carthaginian forces in Sicily. 247 BC Murder of Antiochus II Theos, ruler of the Seleucid Empire, by his wife. He is succeeded by his son Seleucus II Callinicus. 246 BC Seleucus II Callinicus rules 246-225 BC. Third Syrian War. 246-241 BC Seleucus II Callinicus, ruler of the Seleucid Empire (Syria), loses the east Mediterranean coast to Ptolemy III of Egypt. Capture of Corinth by Aratus of Sicyon. 243 BC Attalus I becomes King of Pergamum. 241 BC Battle of the Aegates Islands. March 10, 241 BC The Roman fleet under G. Lutatius Catulus defeats and destroys the Carthaginians off the Aegates (Egadi) Islands. Romans defeat Carthage at Lilybaeum, the chief Carthaginian city in Western Sicily. 241 BC Destruction of the Carthaginian fleet by the Romans. Carthage admits defeat. 241 BC Peace treaty between Rome and Carthage. Hamilcar Barca, the father of Hannibal, surrenders Sicily and the Lipari Islands to the Romans. End of the First Punic War (264-241 BC). Total number of war dead of the First Punic War (264-241 BC) is approximately 150,000 men. Sicilia (Sicily) becomes the first Roman province. 241 BC Mercenary War. 241 BC Revolt of Carthaginian mercenaries. Will be crushed by Hamilcar Barca in 238 BC. Death of Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia. 239 BC Demetrius II of Macedonia succeeds Antigonus II. 239 BC War and rebellion weaken Demetrius II of Macedonia’s hold on mainland Greece. 239-229 BC Seizure and annexation of Sardinia (238 BC) and Corsica (237 BC) from Carthage by Rome (Roman Republic). 238-237 BC Hamilcar Barca, Carthaginian general, and father of Hannibal. Begins the conquest of Spain (237-230 BC). 237 BC Carthage begins to conquer Spain to compensate for the loss of Sicily, Sardinia, and the Lipari Islands. Outbreak of war between Sparta and the Achaean League. 236 BC Death of Asoka. c. 236 BC His kingdom is divided between his grandsons. Beginning of the decline of the Maurya Empire in India. Eratosthenes of Cyrene (ca.280-194 BC). ca.235 BC Calculates the polar diameter of the Earth to be only 50 miles short of the modern value. First measurement of the Earth’s circumference (accomplished without the use of astronomical instruments). Makes contributions to Geography. Studies Historical Chronology. Heliocentric theory of the Solar System. Death of Han Fei Tzu. Chinese philosopher. 233 BC Hasdrubal is in Spain. 230-221 BC Egyptian temple of the sun god Horus is built at Edfu. c. 230 BC First Illyrian War (aka First Illyro-Roman War). 230-228 BC War between Roman fleet and Illyrian pirates. The Romans will defeat the Illyrian pirates. Nicomedes. Treatise “On Conchoid Lines”. c. 230 BC Contains the discovery of the curve that is now known as the “Conchoid of Nicomedes”. Attalus I of Pergamum. Makes Pergamum master of western Asia Minor. c. 230 BC Ch’in state conquers its rivals. 230-221 BC Carthage rules southern Spain. 229 BC Antigonus III of Macedonia succeeds Demetrius II. 229 BC Organization of the first Roman Provinces. 227 BC Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Foundation of Carthago Nova (New Carthage) in eastern Spain by Hasdrubal of Carthage. 227 BC War between Cleomenes, King of Sparta, and the Aetolian League. 227 BC Ebro River Treaty between Rome and Hasdrubal. 226 BC Rome and Carthage agree that the Ebro River (in Spain) would divide the Roman sphere of influence in the north, from the Carthaginian sphere of influence in the south, but that Rome would continue its alliance with Saguntum which lay south of the Ebro River. Hasdrubal, Hamilcar’s son-in-law, promises not to cross the Ebro River for offensive purposes. Athens, freed from Macedonia, allies with the Roman Republic. 226 BC The Cisalpine Gauls (Celts) rise up and march southward. ca. 225 BC Battle of Telamon (in Etruria). 225 BC The Gauls are defeated by the Romans. 40,000 Gauls are killed. The Romans (Roman Republic) crush Celtic invaders and build defensive forts in Northern Italy. 225-222 BC Roman armies are in Illyria. 225 BC Seleucus III Ceraunus. Ruler of the Seleucid Empire. 225-223 BC Apollonius of Perga (fl.250-220 BC). “Conics”. c. 225 BC Introduces the terms “parabola”, “ellipse”, and “hyperbola”. Romans stop incursions of the Boii, a Gallic tribe. 225-222 BC Earthquake at Rhodes. Destruction of the Colossus of Rhodes. 224 BC Antiochus III, the Great, the 6th ruler of the Seleucid Empire. 223-187 BC Rules the Babylonian Empire (from Syria and Phoenicia to Egypt). Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire begins the reconquest of territories that had been taken by Pergamum. c. 223 BC Roman conquest of northern Italy including Mediolanum (modern Milan), the capital of the Insubres, a Celtic tribe. 222 BC Battle of Clastidium. 222 BC (Part of the Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul). Victory of the Romans over the Celts at the Battle of Clastidium. The Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus kills Britomartus, the chief of the Gauls, in single combat. Battle of Sellasia. 221 BC Defeat of Sparta by a Macedonian phalanx of 10,000 men. Cleomenes III, King of Sparta, flees to Egypt. 221 BC Conquest of Sparta is made by Antigonus III Doson, of Macedonia. 221 BC Philip V becomes King of Macedonia. 221 BC Rules 221-179 BC Succession of Ptolemy III Euergetes, ruler of Egypt, by his son Ptolemy IV Philopater. 221 BC Ptolemy III Philopater rules Egypt 221-205 BC. Murder of Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca. Hamilcar’s eldest son, Hannibal, becomes commander of the Carthaginian armies. 221 BC Ch’in Dynasty in China. 221-206 BC China is unified for the first time in its history. China gets its name from this dynasty. Shih Huang-ti becomes China’s “First Emperor”. Rules 221-206 BC. Construction of the Flaminian Way from Rome to Rimini. c. 220 BC Second Illyro-Roman War. 220-219 BC (aka the Second Illyrian War). War of the Allies (also known as the “Social War”). 220-217 BC Macedonia fights against the Aetolian League, Sparta, and Elis. Rome interferes with Carthaginian affairs south of the Ebro River. 219 BC Saguntum which lay south of the Ebro River boundary in Carthaginian territory makes a defense treaty with the Roman Republic. Saguntum appeals to Rome for help against Carthage. Siege of Saguntum. 219-218 BC Siege and capture of Saguntum by the Carthaginians under the command of Hannibal Barca, because Rome had sent no help. Encouraged by his success in Saguntum, Hannibal Barca sees the opportunity to rid Spain entirely of the Romans. Hannibal Barca crosses the Ebro River and enters into Roman territory. Fourth Syrian War. 219-217 BC Ptolemy IV of Egypt vs. Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire (Syria). Rome demands the return of Saguntum and the extradition of Hannibal. Carthage refuses the Roman demands. 218 BC Roman declaration of war with Carthage. Outbreak of the Second Punic War (218-201 BC). 218 BC At the outbreak of the Second Punic War, the Romans thinking that the war was going to be waged in Spain, send Publius Cornelius Scipio and his Roman armies by sea to Massilia (modern Marseilles) to proceed on to Spain and intercept Hannibal. 218 BC On his way to Spain, to intercept Hannibal, Publius Cornelius Scipio is diverted by an insurrection of Gauls. 218 BC Hannibal leaves Spain and crosses the Alps to invade Italy. 218 BC Hannibal, the Carthaginian, begins his campaign against Rome during the Second Punic War. Hannibal launches a surprise attack from Spain into Italy via Mount Genevre in the Alps crossing first the Pyreenees and then the Alps. Hannibal frustrates the Roman war plan to attack Spain and from Sicily, Africa. Hannibal has about 50,000 men, 9000 cavalry, and 37 war elephants. Costly battles plus the rigors of the crossing cause the loss of half of the troops, down to 26,000 men. Hannibal had left his brother Hasdrubal to protect Spain with an army. Consul Publius Cornelius Scipio arrives in Spain three days late. 218 BC Instead of pursuing Hannibal, Scipio sends his armies under the command of his younger brother Cornelius Scipio Calvus (later called Africanus) into Spain in order to cut Hannibal's supply line and reinforcements. Second Punic War (218-201 BC) is fought in Spain. 218-211 BC Battle of Ticinus. Autumn 218 BC Returning from the Rhône to Italy, Publius Cornelius Scipio is defeated by the forces of Hannibal at the Ticinus River. P.C. Scipio is severely wounded. P.C. Scipio returns to Italy. 218 BC Together with an army headed by the Consul Tiberius Sempronius Longus, coming from Sicily, Scipio goes to meet Hannibal. Battle of the Trebbia River. Dec. 218 BC Roman armies under Publius Cornelius Scipio and Tiberius Sempronius Longus attack and are defeated by Hannibal at the river Trebbia. The sack of Thermum. 218 BC Philip V of Macedon sacks Thermum during the Social War. Battle of Lake Trasimene. 217 BC Hannibal ambushes, surrounds, and destroys a large Roman army under Consul Gaius Flaminius at Lake Trasimene. Hannibal continues moving southward. Roman naval victory off the Ebro River. 217 BC The dismayed population of Rome appoints Quintus Fabius Maximus as dictator in order to cope with Hannibal. 217 BC Fabius Maximus, having seen the uselessness of fighting Hannibal in open warfare, avoids set battles and instead resorts to a cautious, delaying conduct of the war (“Fabian tactics”). Battle of Raphia. 217 BC Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire is defeated by Ptolemy IV Philopater ruler of Egypt. Arsaces II. King of Parthia. 217-191 BC Battle of Cannae. August 3, 216 BC (Part of the Second Punic War). This is one of the worst Roman defeats in the history of Rome. When the Roman policy of “Fabian warfare” is abandoned, the outflanking of the Roman army by the Carthaginian cavalry leads to the loss of over 50,000 Romans and 4,500 prisoners, out of an army of 86,000 men. Among the dead is the Consul Lucius Aemillius Paullus. Capua, the Samnites, Lucanians, and Bruttians secede from Rome.216 BC Hannibal takes up winter quarters in Campania in southern Italy. Hannibal is forced to abandon his aggressive conduct of the war because of insufficient support from Carthage. 216 BC Philip V, King of Macedonia makes an alliance with Hannibal of Carthage against the Roman Republic. 216 BC Roman armies in Spain are under Publius Cornelius Scipio and Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio (his brother). 215 BC Syracuse in Sicily joins Carthage against the Roman Republic. 215 BC First Macedonian War. 215-205 BC Rome against Macedonia. Rome’s Greek allies prevent Philip V of Macedonia from helping Hannibal. Philip V attacks Rome in support of Carthage against Rome. Battle of Nola. 215 BC (Part of the Second Punic War). Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus defeats Hannibal at Nola. Hannibal receives his first defeat by the Romans. Punic War in Sicily (214-210 BC). Begins. 214 BC Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus begins the conquest of Sicily from the Carthaginians. 214 BC The Roman conquest of Sicily will be completed in 210 BC. Seizure of Tarentum (modern Taranto) by Hannibal in 212 BC. Secession of the Greek cities along the south Italian coast, and Hannibal’s victory at Capua. 213-212 BC The Fall of Syracuse. 212 BC The sack and conquest of Syracuse, Sicily by the Roman army under the Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus. Archimedes (287-212 BC) is killed during the Roman siege of Syracuse. Construction of the Great Wall of China (1,400 miles long) begins during the Ch’in Dynasty. 212 BC Built to keep out invaders (Xiongnu or Huns). This is the first actual historically proven date pertaining to Chinese history. “Hannibal ante portas!” The Carthaginians are before the city of Rome. Hannibal reaches the gates of Rome but retreats. 211 BC Recapture of Capua by the Romans. 211 BC The siege and re-capture of Capua by the Romans is made possible by the failure of Hannibal’s diversionary attack on the city of Rome. Quintus Fulvius Flaccus forces the city of Capua to surrender. Battle of Ilorca. 211 BC Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio is defeated by the Carthaginians. He dies in battle. Battle of the Upper Baetis. 211 BC The defeat of the Romans and the deaths of Publius Cornelius Scipio and Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio, his brother, in Spain, were brought about by Hasdrubal and the Numidian prince Masinissa. The Romans send the 24 year old Publius Cornelius Scipio (later will be called Africanus) to Spain. 211 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio was his father. Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio was his uncle. Alliance of Rome, the Aetolians, Spartans, Eleons, and Illyria. 211 BC Sicily is abandoned by the Carthaginians. 210 BC Antiochus III, ruler of the Seleucid Empire, is at the peak of his power. 209 BC Battle of Carthago Nova. 209 BC Conquest of Carthago Nova (New Carthage) in Spain, by Publius Cornelius Scipio the Younger, the son of Publius Cornelius Scipio. Completion of the conquest of Spain from the Carthaginians by Publius Cornelius Scipio the Younger (Africanus). 209-206 BC Battle of Baecula. 208 BC A costly battle for Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal. Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, leaves the Iberian peninsula (Spain) in order to help his brother whose resources are declining. 208 BC Battle of the Metaurus River (Sena Gallica). 207 BC (Part of the Second Punic War). Hasdrubal struggles through into Italy with reinforcements, but before he can join forces with his brother Hannibal, he is defeated at the Battle of Metaurus by the Roman troops under the veteran Marcus Livius Salinator and Gaius Claudius Nero. Hasdrubal is killed in battle. The Roman victory over the Carthaginians at the Metaurus River ranks as one of the decisive battles in history. Hannibal retires to southern Italy. 207 BC Battle of Mantinea. 207 BC Philopoemen, the general of the Achaean League, defeats the Spartans. Battle of Ilipa. 206 BC The brilliant Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio the Younger (later called Africanus) is victorious over the Carthaginians under Mago, brother of Hannibal, and Masinissa at Ilipa (Spain). Romans advance to Southern Spain. Seizure of Gades. 206 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio the Younger defeats the Carthaginians in Spain. Completion of the expulsion of the Carthaginians from Spain by the younger Scipio (later will be called Scipio Africanus). 206 BC Departure of the Carthaginian fleet under Mago for the Balearic Islands, and from there to Genoa to win over the Ligurians and the Gauls once more for the fight against Rome. End of Carthaginian rule in Spain. 206 BC Founding of the Han Dynasty in China. 206 BC Will last from 206 BC until 221 AD. Ptolemy V, Epiphanes, becomes King of Egypt. 205 BC Ptolemy V rules 205-181 BC. Egypt is assisted by the Roman Republic. Inscription engraved on the “Rosetta Stone”. c.205 BC Records the accession of Ptolemy V, Epiphanes to the throne of Egypt. Scipio the Younger returns to Rome and is elected Consul. 205 BC Peace of Phoenice. 205 BC End of the First Macedonian War (215-205 BC). Scipio the Younger carries the war against Carthage into north Africa. Scipio the Younger crosses into Africa. 204 BC He remains there until the end of the Second Punic War in 202 BC. Masinessa, the Numidian, defects from Carthage. 204 BC Judaea submits to Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire. 203 BC Battle of Utica. 203 BC Scipio the Younger (Africanus) defeats Carthaginian forces at Utica, less than 20 miles west of Carthage. Fruitless peace negotiations lead to Hannibal’s recall from Italy back to Carthage. 203 BC Death of Mago, brother of Hannibal in upper Italy. 203 BC Hannibal is blockaded in Calabria with no forces for further operations of any magnitude. 203 BC Hannibal manages to leave Calabria (Croton) located on the Gulf of Taranto and returns to Carthage, in north Africa. 202 BC Battle of Zama. 202 BC Hannibal is defeated by Publius Scipio Africanus the Younger at the Battle of Zama. The Carthaginian army is destroyed by the Romans. Hannibal flees to Hadrumentum and advises peace. 202 BC End of fighting in the Second Punic War (218-201 BC) with the defeat of Carthage at the Battle of Zama by Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus). Over 200,000 total war dead. Peace treaty between Rome and Carthage. 202 BC Abandonment of Spain by Carthage. Surrender of Numidia to Masinessa. Payment of Reparations. Surrender of warships, except for 10 triremes. Prohibition of warfare outside Africa. Warfare in Africa only with Roman permission. Publius Cornelius Scipio the Younger receives the honorary title of “Africanus”. Scipio receives a triumphal celebration. 202 BC Fifth Syrian War. 202-195 BC End of the Second Punic War. 201 BC Carthage surrenders all of its Mediterranean lands to Rome. The territory of Syracuse in Sicily is incorporated into the Roman Province of Sicilia. Second Macedonian War. 200-197 BC Greek states turn to Rome for help against Philip V, King of Macedonia. Rome joins the Greek states in war against Macedonia. The ravaging of Attica. 200 BC Roman War with the Gauls in Upper Italy. 200-190 BC Rome suppresses the uprising of the Boii and the Insubres, barbarian tribes that were supported by scattered Carthaginians. Porta Augusta, Perugia. ca.200 BC Fine example of Etruscan arched gateway. Winged Victory of Samothrace (Nike of Samothrace). ca.200-190 BC Greek sculpture. Battle of Panion (in Palestine). 200 BC Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire takes Palestine from Egypt. Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire, in a great battle in Palestine, expels Egyptian troops under Scopas from Jerusalem. Antiochus III defeats the Egyptian army at Mount Panium (Panion). Final establishment of the Seleucid (Syrian) power in Palestine. Cato the Elder. “De Agricultura.” c.200 BC Diocles. “On Burning Mirrors.” c.200 BC Includes a collection of sixteen propositions in geometry mostly proving results dealing with conics. “Greek Kings” continue on in India. 199-138 BC The Achaeans and the Spartans join the Romans in the war against Macedonia. 198 BC The Romans divide Spain into two Roman provinces. 197 BC Hispania Citerior (east coast) and Hispania Ulterior (southern coast). Battle of Cynoscephalae. 197 BC Under the leadership of Titus Quinctius Flaminius of Rome, Roman armies break through into Thessaly and defeat the armies of Philip V, King of Macedon, at Cynoscephalae. Marks the end of the Second Macedonian War (200-197 BC). 10,000 total war dead. Peace treaty: Philip V of Macedonia surrenders hegemony in Greece, payment of War Indemnity, and surrender of the Macedonian fleet except for six ships. Philip V is forced to surrender Greece to the Romans. Titus Quinctius Flaminus (Rome) declares Greek city states (Macedonian Greece) independent of Macedonia. 196 BC Hannibal of Carthage joins Antiochus III, of the Seleucid Empire. Hannibal urges Antiochus to carry on war against the Romans. 196 BC Founding of the great Library at Pergamum. 196 BC End of the Fifth Syrian War (202-195 BC). 195 BC Won by Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire. Ptolemy V Epiphanes, ruler of Egypt from 205 BC, loses all lands in Asia Minor but keeps Cyprus. Peace between the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Egypt. 195 BC Hannibal of Carthage flees to Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire because of a Roman demand for his extradition. 195 BC Cato is in Spain. 195 BC Romans leave Greece. 194 BC Masinessa, King of Numidia, harasses the Carthaginians and interferes with their commerce. 193 BC Roman-Seleucid War. 192-189 BC Fought between Rome and Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire (Syria). Antiochus III of Syria invades Greece and with the Aetolians fights Rome. Rome is backed by Macedonia and the Achaeans. The Romans will acquire territory in Asia Minor, during the Seleucid War between Rome and the Seleucid Empire, under Antiochus III of Syria. War between Rome and Sparta. 192 BC End of the Spartan Empire (Sparta was founded c.900 BC). Beginnings of revolts in Spain against Roman rule. 191-189 BC Battle of Thermopylae. 191 BC The Romans under Manius Acilius Glabrio and Marcus Porcius Cato crush Antiochus III, Seleucid King (Syria), at Thermopylae and drive him from mainland Greece. Arsaces III Phriapatius. King of Parthia. 191-176 BC Battle of Magnesia. 190 BC A Roman force of 40,000 legionaries under Lucius Cornelius Scipio (later called Scipio Asiaticus) and his brother Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, totally defeat an 80,000 man army under the Seleucid King Antiochus III at Magnesia, on the Sipylus in Asia Minor. Antiochus III is compelled to cede all of Asia Minor except for Cilicia. Beginning of Roman world domination. Greek rulers in Bactria take the opportunity to break away from control of the Seleucid Empire. c.190 BC Romans attack and subjugate the Celts. 190 BC Armenia revolts against the rule of the Seleucid Empire and establishes its independence. 189 BC The Aetolian League is crushed by the Romans (Roman Republic). 189 BC Peace of Apamea. 189 BC End of the Roman-Seleucid War (192-189 BC). Rome makes Antiochus III pay war indemnity to the Romans, give Asia Minor to Rhodes and Pergamum, and surrender all of their warships except for ten of them. Rome helps Pergamum against the Galatians. 189 BC After the Peace of Apamea (189 BC), Hannibal of Carthage flees to King Prusias of Bithynia. 188 BC The Romans demand the extradition of Hannibal of Carthage. Philopoemen abrogates the laws of Lycurgus in Sparta. 188 BC Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire is killed. 187 BC He is succeeded by his son Seleucus IV Philopater. Seleucid power in Syria begins to revive under Seleucus IV Philopater. Rules 187-175 BC. 187 BC Conquest of the Punjab in India by Demetrius of Bactria. c. 185 BC Cato, the leader of the anti-Scipionic party in Rome engages in fighting corruption within the nobility. 184 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, the great opponent of Hannibal of Carthage, is accused of high treason. Lucius Cornelius Scipio (Asiaticus) who defeated Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire is accused of embezzlement. Scipio Africanus the Elder (236-183 BC) goes into voluntary exile. 184 BC Overthrow of the Mauryan Dynasty in India. 184 BC Scipio Africanus the Elder (236-183 BC) dies in self-imposed exile. 183 BC Pisa and Parma in northern Italy come under Roman rule. 183 BC Suicide of Hannibal. 183 BC After his career in Asia Minor, Hannibal commits suicide while he is in exile in Bithynia, upon betrayal to the Romans, in order to avoid extradition by Rome. Philopoeman is taken prisoner and put to death by the Messenians.183 BC Decline of the Achaean League. Succession of Ptolemy V in Egypt by Ptolemy VI Philometor. 181 BC Ptolemy VI rules Egypt 181-145 BC. Founding of the Roman colony of Aquileia as a trade metropolis for northern Europe. 181 BC The Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamum (in modern day Berlin). 180 BC Built for Eumenes II of Pergamum. One of the great altars of the BC period. Taoism and Confucianism become established in China. 180 BC Pons Aemilius. 179 BC The first stone bridge is built in Rome. Death of Philip V, King of Macedonia. 179 BC Perseus, son of Philip V, succeeds to the rule of Macedonia. Perseus rules 179-167 BC. Perseus is hostile to Rome. Continues war with Rome until 167 BC. Istria is subdued by the Romans. 177 BC Phraates. King of Parthia. 176-171 BC Conquers the Mardians on the Caspian Sea. Deposition of the Jewish high priest Onias (Palestine). 175 BC Earliest known paved streets appear in Rome. c.175 BC Murder of Seleucus IV of the Seleucid Empire by poison. 175 BC Antiochus IV Epiphanes rules the Seleucid Empire. 175-164 BC He is universally hated and despised. Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucid Empire executes Onias III, the Jewish high priest in Judea. 172 BC The Romans effect the dissolution of the Boeotian confederacy. 172 BC Mithridates I, comes to the throne of the Kingdom of Parthia. 171 BC Rules 171-132 BC. Eumenes II of Pergamum (hailed as champion of Greek Independence) persuades Rome to take action against Macedonia. 171 BC Third Macedonian War. 171-168 BC Macedonians under Perseus again attack Rome. Rome against Macedonia. Perseus, son of Philip V, of Macedonia. Attempts to restore hegemony over Greece. Roman army is defeated by Perseus of Macedonia at Larissa. 171 BC Outbreak of war between Egypt (Ptolemy VI) and Syria (Antiochus IV). Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucid Empire (Syria) invades Egypt and gains a victory at Pelusium. 171 BC Subjugation of Egypt as far as Alexandria by Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucid Empire. 170 BC Tyranny of Antiochus IV Epiphanes in Palestine. 170 BC Small Greek principalities are established in the Punjab in India. 170 BC Sixth Syrian War. 170-168 BC Temple of Zeus, Olympius, Athens, is resumed by the Roman architect Cassutius. This is the first major temple in the Corinthian style of architecture. ca. 170 BC Battle of Pydna. June 22, 168 BC Roman forces under Lucius Aemilius Paulus crush Macedonian army under Perseus, the ruler of Macedonia, at Pydna. 20,000 Macedonians killed and 11,000 taken prisoner. End of the Third Macedonian War. Romans defeat, dethrone, and imprison the Macedonian ruler, Perseus. The Romans subordinate Macedonia and Illyria. 168 BC Romans ravage Epirus. Macedonia is divided into four republics. Macedonians are sold as slaves in Rome. Ptolemy VII (Eugertes) becomes joint ruler of Egypt with his brother Ptolemy VI. 168 BC Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucid Empire captures and pillages the city of Jerusalem. 168 BC Severe persecution of the Jews by Antiochus IV, King of Syria. Desecration of the Temple of Jerusalem by Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the Seleucid King of Syria. 168 BC Antiochus IV Epiphanes builds a statue of Jupiter Olympius (Zeus) in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem. 168 BC The Revolt of the Hasmoneans (Hebrew Maccabees). 168-165 BC Maccabaean revolt. Successful revolt of the Jews led by Maccabees. Led by the Jewish priest Mattathias and his sons, Judas, Jonathan, and Simon Maccabeus, against the Seleucid rule under Antiochus IV, king of Syria, who had tried to Hellenize Jewish Palestine. Rome stops Antiochus IV of Syria, capturing Alexandria, Egypt. 168 BC Third Illyro-Roman War (aka Third Illyrian War). 168 BC Lucius Anicius Gallus defeats Gentius, the Illyrian king. Destruction of the Ardiaei Kingdom. Death of Perseus, the ruler of Macedonia. 167 BC End of the Antigonid Dynasty in Macedonia (276-167 BC). Judas Maccabaeus. Rededicates the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem after expelling the Syrians (Seleucids) from Jerusalem. 165 BC Antiochus IV of the Seleucid Empire, dies on his way to Babylon. 164 BC Loss of Babylonia, Persia, and all countries between the Euphrates and the Indus. Ptolemy VI flees Egypt. Division of the kingdom of Egypt between Ptolemy VI and the future Ptolemy VIII (Physcon). 164-63 BC Antiochus V Eupater (rules 163-161 BC) and Demetrius I Soter (rules 163-150 BC) rule the Seleucid Empire. 163 BC Seizure of Media by Mithridates I of Parthia. 161 BC Demetrius I Soter is sole ruler of the Seleucid Empire. 161-150 BC The city of Rome has many public libraries. 161 BC Death of Judas Maccabeus while fighting against the Seleucids. c. 160 BC Jonathan Maccabeus, the younger brother of Judas Maccabeus, is leader of the Jews in Judaea (until 143 BC). The Xiongnu (Huns) fight against the Han Dynasty in China. 160-140 BC Judaea briefly becomes an independent principality. 157 BC Embassy of Diogenes of Babylon the Stoic (c.230-c.150 BC), Carneades (Platonist), and Critolaus (Aristotelian) to Rome. 155 BC Ptolemy VIII of Egypt bequeaths his share of the kingdom to Rome. 155 BC Celtiberian War (Spanish War). 154-151 BC Revolt in Spain against Roman rule. Masinessa of Numidia defeats the Carthaginians. 152 BC Constant conflict with Masinessa of Numidia, who is encouraged by Rome, drives Carthage into a war that is not approved by Rome (according to the Treaty of 202 BC). 150 BC Rome declares war on Carthage. 150 BC Dissensions between the Spartans and the Achaeans. 150 BC Demetrius I Soter, ruler of the Seleucial Empire, is killed in battle. 150 BC Alexander Balas. Ruler of the Seleucid Empire. 150-146 BC Hero of Alexandria. "Pneumatics" (“Pneumatica”). Provides a study of atmospheric air, syphons, pumps, the effects of heat on liquids, and engine design. ca. 150 BC Panaetius of Rhodes (c.185-109 BC). Stoic philosopher. Introduces Stoicism from Greece to Rome. c. 150 BC Third Punic War. 149-146 BC The Romans invade north Africa. 149 BC After the landing of two Roman armies, the Carthaginians at first capitulate, but then they refuse to leave the city. They renew the struggle. Fourth Macedonian War. 149-148 BC Rome (the Roman Republic) defeats Macedonia in the Macedonian War. 148 BC Macedonia is reduced to a Roman province (147). 147 BC Macedonia is the first Roman Province in the East. Rome cuts Carthage off from all supplies by land or sea. 146 BC Famine in Carthage. Achaean League attacks Sparta. 146 BC Rome sends Roman troops under Lucius Mummius into Greece. 146 BC Conquest of Corinth. 146 BC Corinth is taken over by Roman troops under the commander Lucius Mummius (Achaicus). The Romans take an enormous haul of Greek art back to Italy. Roman Conquest of Greece. 146 BC 11,000 total war dead. Greece is now under Roman rule. Greece becomes the Roman province of Achaea. End of the Achaean League. Greece will belong to Rome from 146 BC until the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD when it will pass to the newly formed Byzantine Empire (Constantinople). Seizure and destruction of Carthage. 146 BC Rome sends Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus (185-129 BC) who accomplishes the seizure and destruction of Carthage despite a plea by P. Cornelius Scipio. Carthage capitulates. Out of an estimated population of 700,000, 450,000 are killed, and 50,000 Carthaginians are left alive. Survivors are sold into slavery. Carthage is burnt, the ground is salted, the ruins are ploughed to express final total destruction, and a curse is invoked upon anyone who might attempt to rebuild it. Carthage ceases to exist. Carthage will later be rebuilt by Julius Caesar. End of the Third Punic War (149-146 BC). 146 BC Carthage is made a Roman province. It is called “Africa”. The Roman Republic now has seven provinces: 146 BC Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, the two Spains, Gallia Transalpina, Africa, and Macedonia. Hipparchus of Nicea. fl. 146-126 BC Greek philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician. Measures the size and distance of the Moon from the Earth. Measures the size and the distance of the Sun from the Earth. Develops the beginnings of Trigonometry. Demetrius II Nicator rules Seleucia (Seleucid Empire). 146 BC First reign (146-139 BC). Second reign 129-126 BC. Death of Ptolemy VI Philometor of Egypt. 145 BC Ptolemy VIII Euergetes becomes the sole ruler of Egypt. He is a cruel and odious tyrant. Ptolemy VIII Euergetes rules 145-116 BC. Lusitanian War. War with Viriathus, the leader of the Lusitani (Lusitania in Iberia), who maintains a prolonged war with Rome. 143-133 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus (185-129 BC) is sent against Viriathus the leader of the Lusitani (part of Lusitanian War). 143 BC Jonathan Maccabaeus (the successor of Judas) is killed by the Seleucids. Jonathan is succeeded by Simon Maccabaeus (to 134 BC), the elder brother of Judas Maccabaeus and Jonathan Maccabaeus as leader of the Jews. 143 BC Simon Maccabeus negotiates independence for Judaea (southern Palestine). 143 BC Independence lasts from 143-63 BC. Jews win independence in Judaea under Simon Maccabeus (Maccabees). Embassy of Scipio Africanus to Alexandria. 143 BC Numantine War. 143-133 BC Rome vs. Numantia. Mithridates I of Parthia captures Babylon. c. 141 BC Development of various religious groups in Israel including the Pharisees, the Saduccees, and the Essenes. c. 140-137 BC Viriathus, leader of the Lusitani, is treacherously murdered. Lusitania will become a Roman province (133 BC). 140 BC Epirus is taken by the Romans (the Roman Republic). 140 BC The Venus de Milo. Greek sculpture. c. 140 BC Demetrius II Nicator, ruler of the Seleucid Empire. Defeats Mithridates I of Parthia. 140 BC Mithridates I of Parthia. Captures Demetrius II Nicator of Seleucia. 139 BC Scythian invasion of Bactria. c. 139 BC Phraates II. Ruler of Parthea. 138-127 BC Antiochus VII Sidetes is ruler of the Seleucid Empire. 138-129 BC First Slave War (also called the First Servile War). 136-132 BC The Syrian Eunus brings the slaves of Sicily together. 200,000 Sicilian slaves revolt against the Roman Republic. Eunus is taken prisoner after the capture of Enna and Tauromenium. The revolt will be suppressed. Assassination of Simon Maccabeus. 135 BC He is succeeded by his son John Hyrcanus as leader of the Jews in Judaea (Palestine). Rules 135-104 BC. Antiochus VIII, ruler of the Seleucid Empire (Syria). Reconquers the city of Jerusalem. 134 BC In the East, Attalos III of Pergamon in Asia Minor bequeaths the Kingdom of Pergamum to Rome (the Roman Republic). 133 BC Attalos III is the last ruler of the kingdom of Pergamum. Asia Minor will become the eighth Roman Province in 129 BC. Seizure of Numantia by the Romans under Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus. He receives the additional title of Numantinus. 133 BC End of the Numantine War (143-133 BC). Lusitania becomes a Roman province. 133 BC Rome subdues all of Spain, except for the northwest. 133 BC Conflict between the Han Dynasty in China and the Xiongnu (Huns) is renewed. 133-119 BC Reform movement of the Gracchi. 133-121 BC Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and 300 people are killed in a massacre of revolutionaries for social reforms. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus is beaten to death with a fragment of a broken bench by two senators (133 BC). Rome crushes the Sicilian slave revolt. 132 BC End of the First Servile War (136-132 BC). John Hyrcanus I aided by the Parthians, asserts the independence of the Jews in Palestine. 130 BC Temple of Artemis Leucophryene, Magnesia on the Meander. c. 130 BC Masterwork of the architect Hermogenes. The Old Testament Book of Esther is written. c. 130 BC Rome (the Roman Republic) controls nearly all of the Mediterranean territories that are civilized. c. 129 BC Beginning of war between the Seleucid Empire and Parthia. 129 BC Antiochus VII of the Seleucid Empire invades the Parthian Empire. 129 BC Battle of Ecbatana. 129 BC Antiochus VII Sidetes of the Seleucid Empire is defeated and killed in battle fighting against the Parthians under Phraates II. Demetrius II Nicator recovers the throne of the Seleucid Empire. Flaccus reduces the Transalpine Ligurians. 128 BC Hipparchus of Nicea. Discovers the precession of the equinoxes and calculates the length of the year to within 6.5 minutes of the correct value. 127 BC Hipparchus of Nicea. Produces a star catalog of 1080 stars. 125 BC Mithridates II of Parthia. Rules 124-88 BC. Restores peace in the East after a long succession of terrible wars. He will meet with a powerful rival in Tigranes I, King of Armenia. 124-87 BC Tigranes I. King of Armenia. 123-95 BC Election of Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, brother of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, to the position of Tribune. G.S. Gracchus plans wide social reforms. 123 BC Aix becomes the first Roman colony in Gaul. 122 BC Gaius Gracchus expands the program of his brother Tiberius Gracchus. Gaius Gracchus and 3,000 of his followers are killed during a riot in the streets of Rome. 121 BC Roman armies in Gaul subdue two major Gallic tribes, the Allobroges and the Arvernii. 121 BC Gallia Narbonensis (Southern Gaul) becomes a Roman province. 121 BC Balearae Insulae falls under Roman control. 121 BC Antiochus VIII Grypus. Ruler of the Seleucid Empire. 121-96 BC Development of overland silk trade between Rome and China. c.120 BC The Chinese drive the nomadic Hsiung-nu (Huns) into the Gobi Desert. 119 BC Reign of Ptolemy VIII (Soter II) in Egypt. 117-81 BC He is the successor to Ptolemy VII. The Cimbri, an ancient Germanic tribe, leave Jutland which has been devastated by storms, and reach the Roman province of Noricum (Carinthia). 115 BC Cimbrian War. 113-101 BC Roman War against the Cimbri and the Teutons, coming from Jutland with the Ambrones. Battle of Noreia (in Carinthia). 113 BC Roman armies are defeated by the combined forces of the Cimbri, Teutons, and Ambrones. The Pharisees and Sadducees become prominent in Judaea. c. 112 BC Their rivalry weakens the kingdom that was built up by the Hasmonean ruler John Hyrcanus (ruled 135-104 BC). Jugurtha usurps the throne of Numidia. 112 BC The Jugurthine (Numidian or African) War (112-105 BC). War begins between Rome and the usurper Jugurtha, the king of Numidia, in northern Africa. 112 BC A Roman army under the Consul Lucius Calpurnius Bestia is sent to Numidia to defeat Jugurtha. Jugurtha makes peace. 111 BC John Hyrcanus. Joins the Sadducees. 110 BC The Cimbri, a Celtic tribe, ravage Gaul. 108 BC Battle of Muthul River. 108 BC (Roman Conquest of Numidia). Quintus Metellus (Numidicus) takes over the Roman expeditionary force in Numidia. Quintus Metellus routes the Numidians. Jugurtha escapes. Roman general Gaius Marius is elected Consul for the first time. 107 BC He is sent to Africa to defeat Jugurtha. 106 BC Alexander Jannaeus (Hasmonean) in Palestine. 106 BC Gaius Marius, assisted by fellow Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla, defeats and captures Jugurtha of Numidia. 105 BC The usurper Jugurtha surrenders to Sulla. Jugurtha, the Numidian king, is betrayed by his father-in-law Bocchus. Jugurtha is brought to Rome a prisoner and subsequently strangled. End of the Jugurthine War (112-105 BC). 105 BC Part of Numidia becomes a Roman Province. The rest of the kingdom is divided among other north African states. Westward expansion of the Cimbri, a Celtic tribe. 105 BC The Cimbri ravage Roman Gaul. The Cimbri and the Teutones become allies and decide to invade the Roman Republic (Italy). 105 BC Battle of Arausio. 105 BC The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutones win a decisive victory over the Roman army at Arausio on the Rhone River. 20,000 Roman soldiers are killed. The Cimbri and the Teutones advance into northwestern Italy. 105 BC Panic in Rome (the second “Celtic Storm") caused by approaching Germanic barbarian tribes. 105 BC Death of John Hyrcanus (Hasmonean). 104 BC Alexander Jannaeus. King of Judaea. 103-76 BC Outbreak of the Second Slave War (103-99 BC). 103 BC Also known as the Second Servile War. Battle of Aquae Sextiae. 102 BC Germanic tribes Cimbri and Teutones are defeated by Roman armies under Gaius Marius at Aquae Sextiae. Gaius Marius drives back the Germanic barbarian tribes. Cilicia comes under Roman Rule (Roman Republic). 101 BC Battle of Vercellae. 101 BC Germanic barbarian tribes of the Cimbri and Teutones are defeated at Vercellae by Roman armies under Gaius Marius. Gaius Marius. Becomes Consul for the sixth time. 100 BC He murders his political opponents. Asclepiades. Makes differentiation between acute diseases and chronic diseases. c.100 BC Construction of the Great Stupa (Buddhist). Sanchi, India. c.100 BC Roman forces win the Second Servile War (103-99 BC) in Sicily. 99 BC Alexander Jannaeus (Hasmonean) besieges and takes Gaza. 98 BC Cyrenaica (Cyrene) is bequeathed to Rome (the Roman Republic) by Apion of Cyrene. 96 BC Murder of Antiochus VIII Grypus of the Seleucid Empire. 96 BC Antiochus IX, half-brother of Antiochus VIII, is killed in battle. 96 BC Civil and other wars weaken the Seleucid Empire. 95-64 BC Tigranes II. King of Armenia. 95-55 BC Mithridates II of Parthia makes a treaty with Rome. 92 BC Roman Social War or Marsian War. 90-89 BC Revolt of the Pharisees in Judea. 90 BC End of the Social War (90-89 BC). 89 BC This war cost the lives of almost 300,000 men. Rome is forced to open Roman citizenship to the Italian states. All Italians become citizens of Rome. Uprising against the Romans at Ephesus and in all the provinces of Asia. 80,000 Romans are killed in Asia Minor. 88 BC Uprisings against Roman rule at Athens. 88 BC First Mithridatic War. 88-84 BC Attack by Mithridates VI Eupater, King of Pontus, against Roman territory in the East. Appeals to the Greeks to rise up against Rome. Mithridates VI Eupater, King of Pontus. Overruns the Roman Province of Asia (Asia Minor). 88 BC Outbreak of the First Roman Civil War. 88 BC Marius vs. Sulla (88 until 82 BC). Sulla having been charged with the conduct of the war by the Senate, was deprived of his command by the people who gave it to Gaius Marius. Sulla conquers Rome and re-establishes the rule of the Senate. 88 BC Lucius Cornelius Sulla leaves to fight Mithridates. Gaius Marius is driven out by Sulla. Gaius Marius and his supporters return to Rome. 87 BC Marius seizes control of the government. Athens is besieged and taken by the Romans under Sulla. 86 BC End of the revolt of Athens against Roman rule. Battle of Chaeronea. 86 BC Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC) defeats the troops of Mithridates VI Eupater, of Pontus, at the Battle of Chaeronea. Battle of Orchomenus. 85 BC Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC) defeats the armies of Mithridates VI Eupater at Orchomenus. Peace of Dardanus. 84 BC End of First Mithridatic War between Rome and Mithridates VI, of Pontus. Second Mithridatic War. 83-81 BC Fought between Rome and Pontus. The Romans successfully invade Pontus. Quintus Sertorius (123-72 BC), the opponent of Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC), goes into Spain and is made general of the Lusitani.83-72 BC Tigranes II, King of Armenia, is invited by the Syrians to assume the crown of Syria. Rules 83-69 BC. 83 BC Battle of the Colline Gate. 82 BC Sulla returns to Rome, destroys the Marians and all of their allies. Sulla makes himself dictator of Rome (until 79 BC). Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC) sends Pompey the Great to Sicily against the supporters of Gaius Marius. 82 BC Conquest of the provinces of Sicily and north Africa by Pompey the Great. He receives a triumph and the honorary title Magnus (“the Great”). 82 BC Sulla is made dictator in Rome for life (rules 82-79 BC). 82 BC Publication of proscription lists. 90 Senators and 2,600 equestrians are killed. Pompey the Great moves on to the Roman province of Africa against the supporters of Gaius Marius. 81 BC Reign of Ptolemy XII of Egypt. 80-51 BC Arsaces XV (Orodes I). Ruler of the Parthian Empire. 80-75 BC Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC). Voluntarily gives up his dictatorship and retires. 79 BC The death of Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC). 78 BC Revolt of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, an opponent of the reforms that were made by Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC). 78-77 BC Roman generals Quintus Lutatius Catullus and Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey) smash the revolt of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, the opponent of Sulla and his reforms. 78-77 BC Pompey the Great is sent to Spain in order to deal with Quintus Sertorius, the leader of the last supporters of Gaius Marius. 77 BC Pompey fights in Spain against the remaining Marians that are under Quintus Sertorius. Subjugation and reorganization of Spain. 77-71 BC Cyrene (Cyrenaica) in north Africa becomes a Roman Province. 74 BC Outbreak of the Third Mithridatic War (74-64 BC). 74 BC War is provoked by the seizure of Cappadocia and Syria by Mithridates VI Eupater of Pontus. Mithridates VI Eupater of Pontus renews the war against Rome. Battle of Cyzicus. 73 BC Roman general Lucius Licinius Lucullus, with a Roman army, defeats Mithridates VI Eupater of Pontus. General Lucullus takes Pontus for Rome. Mithridates VI Eupater of Pontus flees to the court of Tigranes II, King of Armenia, his son in law. Third Servile War aka Third Slave War (73-71 BC). 73 BC Spartacus, a gladiator from Thessaly, leads a revolt of 70,000 slaves in Southern Italy. Several Roman armies under the generals Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey the Great take two years to put down the slave revolt under Spartacus. 73-71 BC The Helvetii, a barbarian Germanic tribe, cross the Upper Rhine River under their leader Ariovistus and advance into Gaul. 72 BC Gnaeus Pompey crushes the revolt in Spain. 71 BC Battle of Lucania. 71 BC Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus crush the revolt of the slaves and gladiators under Spartacus. Pompey crucifies 6,000 slaves along the Appian Way. End of the Third Servile War (73-71 BC). Roman generals Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey) use their troops to make themselves consuls. 70 BC Consulate of Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus. 70 BC Sullan (Sulla) laws are abolished. Invasion of Armenia by Roman general Lucius Licinius Lucullus. 69 BC Battle of Tigrancerta. 69 BC Roman army under general Lucius Licinius Lucullus besieges Tigrancerta, the fortified capital of Armenia where Mithridates VI of Pontus has taken refuge with Tigranes, King of Armenia. 10,000 Roman besiegers defeat 100,000 Pontic and Armenian troops. Dynastic war in Palestine. 69 BC Hyrcanus II is deposed. Rise of the house of Antipater. Romans capture bases of Mediterranean pirates on Crete. 68-67 BC Lucius Licinius Lucullus is recalled by the Roman Senate from the war against Mithridates VI Eupater, of Pontus. 68 BC Pompey completes the elimination of the Mediterranean pirates. 67 BC Pompey ends the campaign against the pirates in the Mediterranean Sea. Creta (Crete) becomes a Roman Province. 67 BC Cyrenae is incorporated into the Province of “Creta et Cyrenae”. Pompey is given the command against Mithridates VI, of Pontus. 67 BC Pompey defeats Mithridates VI, of Pontus, at the Euphrates River. 67 BC Gnaeus Pompey. With a Roman army, invades Syria and conquers Palestine. 67 BC Subjugation of Pontus by Pompey the Great. 67 BC Hyrcanus II rules Judaea. 67 BC Totally defeated by Pompey the Great, Mithridates VI Eupater, of Pontus, will finally kill himself (63 BC). 65 BC Pompey the Great annexes Syria to the Roman Republic. 64 BC End of the Seleucid Empire (321-64 BC). 64 BC The Seleucid Empire was founded in 321 BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of the generals of Alexander the Great. Reorganization of the East under Gnaeus Pompey. Termination of the Seleucid Empire by Pompey the Great. Pontus, Syria, and Cilicia are reduced to Roman Provinces. Death of Aristobulus II, King of Judaea. Pompey the Great annexes Judaea to Rome. 64 BC End of the Third Mithridatic War (74-64 BC) that was fought between Mithridates VI King of Pontus and the Roman Republic. 64 BC “The Conspiracy of Catiline.” 64-62 BC Pompey the Great captures the city of Jerusalem. 63 BC Pompey incorporates Palestine into the Roman Republic. 63 BC Conquest of Jerusalem by Pompey. Imposition of tribute duties. Judaea is dependent upon the Romans. Reduces Hyrcanus II to religious but not political rule. Cicero, the great Roman orator, exposes Catiline’s plot to seize consulship by force. 63 BC Cataline along with 3,000 of his supporters are defeated and killed at Pistoria. 62 BC Pons Fabricius. 62 BC The Romans build a masonry bridge over the River Tiber. The founding of Florence, Italy. 62 BC Pompey the Great returns to Italy. 62 BC He disbands his army upon landing. Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC), nephew of Marius, and governor of Spain, wins his first victories in Spain. 61 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) leaves Spain and returns to Rome. 60 BC Formation of the First Triumvirate (60-53 BC). 60 BC Formed by Julius Caesar, Pompey the Great, and Marcus Licinius Crassus. Rule will last from 60 BC until 53 BC. Lucretius. “De Rerum Natura.” 60 BC Epicurean doctrine of man and the universe. Epicureanism. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) is elected Consul. 59 BC Birth of Titus Livius (Livy) (59 BC-17 AD). Roman historian. 59 BC Wrote a monumental history of Rome. 142 volumes. Gallic Wars. 58-51 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC), commander of the Roman armies in Gaul, begins the conquest of Gaul. He will command eight campaigns in Gaul. Battle of Bibracte. 58 BC (Part of the Gallic Wars). Julius Caesar crushes the Celtic Helvetii at the Battle of Bibracte (Autun). The Helvetic surrender to Julius Caesar. Battle of Vesontio (also known as the Battle of Mühlhausen). 58 BC (Part of the Gallic Wars). Julius Caesar’s six Roman legions defeat a Gallic force of seven tribes, commanded by the Germanic chief Ariovistus. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). Appointed proconsul (governor) of Gaul and Illyricum. 58 BC The island of Cyprus comes under Roman rule. 58 BC The Xiongnu (Huns) revert back to nomadism. 58-51 BC Battle of Sambre River. 57 BC (Part of the Gallic Wars). Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) conquers a coalition of Belgic tribes (Belgae), especially the Nervii. Battle of Morbihan Gulf. 56 BC (Part of the Gallic Wars). Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) moves into Brittany to put down a rebellion of the Venetii. Campaigns against the tribes of Brittany and is victorious over the Aquitanians. Battle of Coblenz. 55 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) defeats two Germanic tribes of the Tencteri and the Usipetes. Caesar makes first crossing of the Rhine River. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). First invasion of Britain. August 26, 55 BC Caesar invades Britain with eighty transports and two Roman legions. Lands at Albion, between Deal and Walmer. Caesar defeats the Britons. High tides destroy many Roman ships. Caesar returns back to Gaul. Pompey the Great and Marcus Licinius Crassus become Roman consuls. Marcus Licinius Crassus rules Syria. 55 BC Pompey the Great rules Spain. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). Second invasion of Britain. 54 BC Leads five Roman legions and some cavalry in 500 ships. Lands northeast of Dover. Battle of Verulamium. 54 BC (Part of Caesar’s Invasion of Britain). Crushes the army of Britain that is under Cassivellaunus, the Briton chief. Cassivellaunus, a British tribal leader, agrees to pay tribute to Rome. 54 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). Roman invasion and conquest of Britain by Julius Caesar. 54 BC Britain will not be truly subdued until the time of Emperor Claudius. Once again Caesar leaves Britain and returns to Gaul. Marcus Licinius Crassus pillages the Temple of Jerusalem. 54 BC Battle of Tongres. 54 BC (Part of Gallic Wars). Uprising in Gaul of the Eburones under Ambiorix and of the Nervii and Treviri. Ambiorix is driven off by a relief force led by Julius Caesar. Revolt of the Gauls under Vercingetorix, conquest of the Cenabaum, Avaricum and Lutetia Parisiorum. 53-52 BC Battle of Carrhae (Harran) in Northern Syria. 53 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Marcus Licinius Crassus leads an unprovoked attack on Parthia. His 6,000 man army is ambushed near Carrhae and devastated by Parthian archers. 5,500 Romans are killed and 500 are taken as slaves. Crassus is tricked into his death by execution by the Parthians. His army is routed into Mesopotamia. First Parthian War with Rome. 53 BC Caused by the invasion of Crassus. End of the First Triumvirate (60-53 BC). 53 BC Battle of Avaricum. 52 BC (Part of Gallic Wars). Julius Caesar, at the head of the Roman legions, storms into Avaricum (Bourges). Battle of Gergovia. 52 BC (Part of the Gallic Wars). Caesar gives up the siege of Gergovia (Clermont). Battle of Agendicum (Sens). 52 BC (Part of Gallic Wars). Titus Labienus with four Roman legions defeats the Gauls under Camulogenus. Battle of Alesia. 52 BC (Part of the Gallic Wars). Siege and surrender of the Gallic fortress of Alesia in Gaul (France). Gauls led by the Gallic chief Vercingetorix are crushed by the armies of Julius Caesar. Vercingetorix is taken to Rome in chains and beheaded. The Parthians overrun Syria and threaten Antioch. 52-51 BC Anarchy in Rome. 52 BC Pompey sides with the Roman Senate and is elected sole Consul in Rome without colleagues (“sine collega”) in an attempt to restore order. The Roman Senate rejects Caesar’s proposition that the armies be discharged simultaneously, but demands the dissolution of Caesar’s army and his resignation from his position. Cleopatra VII and her brother Ptolemy VIII become joint rulers of Ptolemaic Egypt. 51 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). Completion of the subjugation of Gallia or Gaul (modern France). 51 BC Julius Caesar. 51 BC “De Bello Gallico.” Completes his account of the Gallic War. The Roman Senate issues an “ultimate decision”. Jan. 7, 49 BC Pompey is charged with defending the Roman Republic against Caesar. The Senate orders Julius Caesar to give up his command in Gaul. Julius Caesar leads his armies from Gaul against Pompey. 49 BC Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon River into Italy. Jan. 10-11, 49 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon River with 7,000 men into Italy to fight Pompey (“alea jacta est”), a gesture of defiance, starting the civil war. Pompey himself and part of the Roman Senate flee to Greece. Second Civil War in Rome. 49-45 BC Julius Caesar vs. Pompey and the senatorial party (the Roman Senate). Battle of Ilerda. 49 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Julius Caesar marches into Spain, Pompey’s province, with an army of 40,000 men. Caesar conquers Spain (victory at Ilerda along the Segre River). Julius Caesar forces Pompey’s troops to surrender. Caesar crosses to Epirus. Battle of Utica. 49 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). G. Scribonius Curio lands at Utica in North Africa, with two Roman legions. Defeats the Pompeian forces in what is now called Tunisia. Battle of Bagradas River. 49 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). The adherents of Pompey in North Africa defeat the forces of G. Scribonius Curio. Battle of Illyria. 49 BC Supporters of Pompey defeat the supporters of Julius Caesar. Battle of Dyrrachium (Durrës, in modern Albania). 48 BC Julius Caesar vs Gnaeus Pompey. Battle of Pharsalus (also Pharsalia). August 9, 48 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Julius Caesar’s 22,000 man army defeats Pompey’s 45,000 man army in the decisive Battle of Pharsalus in Thessaly (Greece). 20,000 of Pompey’s troops surrender. Pompey flees for his life into Egypt. Julius Caesar pursues Pompey into Egypt. Pompey will be murdered in Egypt. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) meets Cleopatra VII in Egypt. 48 BC Battle of Alexandria. 48-47 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Julius Caesar is encircled at Alexandria, Egypt. Burning of the Library of Alexandria. Caesar is victorious at the Nile. Cleopatra VII, daughter of Ptolemy XI of Egypt, with the aid of Julius Caesar, is made Queen of Egypt (rules 47-30 BC). Cleopatra reigns jointly with Ptolemy XIII, her brother. 47 BC Cleopatra of Egypt becomes mistress of Julius Caesar. 47 BC Julius Caesar leaves Egypt for Syria. 47 BC Battle of Zela. August 2, 47 BC Julius Caesar defeats Pharnaces II, of Pontus, at Zela in Asia Minor. Sends the message “Veni, vidi, vici” to the Roman Senate. Julius Caesar sails to Tarentum and Italy and then goes back to Africa again. 47 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). “De Bello Civili.” c. 47 BC Antipater is appointed Roman procurator of Judaea by Julius Caesar. His son Herod is made Roman governor of Galilee. 47 BC Battle of Ruspina. Jan. 46 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Julius Caesar defeats Sextus, one of Pompey’s sons in north Africa. Africa is made a Roman province. Julius Caesar returns back to Rome with Cleopatra of Egypt. 46 BC Julius Caesar conquers Rome and Italy. 46 BC Battle of Thapsus. April 46 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Caesar’s victory at Thapsus over Metellus Pius Scipio, his former lieutenant Titus Labienus, Juba I of Numidia, and Sextus Pompey. All four are supporters of the late Pompey. Suicide of Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger at Utica upon learning of Caesar’s victories at Thapsus. 46 BC Romans celebrate the triumphs of Julius Caesar in Rome. 46 BC Julius Caesar lives with Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, in Rome. 46-44 BC Julius Caesar is made sole Consul of Rome for a period of ten years but he refuses to accept the crown. 46 BC Julius Caesar. Rules Rome, which now includes Gaul, Italy, part of Illyria, Macedonia, Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, and part of North Africa. 46-44 BC Rome adopts the Julian Calendar of 365.25 days. Introduction of leap year. 46 BC War against Caesar continues in Spain. 45 BC Battle of Munda. March 45 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Victory of Julius Caesar over the two sons of Pompey at the Battle of Munda in Spain. Gnaeus Pompey, son of the late Pompey, is killed. Sextus Pompey, another of Pompey’s sons, escapes to northern Spain. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) emerges victorious after his military campaigns (49-45 BC) in the provinces against Pompey’s army. 45 BC Julius Caesar returns to Rome. 45 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) is made perpetual dictator of Rome for life (“dictator perpetuus”). 45 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) adopts his grand nephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian). 45 BC Marcus Antonius (Marc Antony) offers Julius Caesar the royal diadem. Caesar refuses to accept it. Feb. 15, 44 BC Julius Caesar plans an expedition against the Parthians. 44 BC Cleopatra VII of Egypt kills her brother Ptolemy XIII by poison. 44 BC Her son Ptolemy XIV rules Egypt with his mother Cleopatra as co-ruler. Death of Julius Caesar. March 15, 44 BC Julius Caesar is stabbed to death, after a senatorial conspiracy, in the Roman Senate by a group led by Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus. It is the “Ides of March.” The Romans turn on the murderers of Julius Caesar. 44 BC His assassins flee from Rome. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC), in his will, had made his grand nephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian) his heir and his successor. 44 BC Battle of Mutina (modern Modena). April 43 BC (Part of the Wars of the Second Triumvirate). Formation of the Second Triumvirate by Gaius Octavius. Nov. 11, 43 BC The Second Triumvirate of Marcus Antonius, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and Gaius Octavian, Caesar’s grand nephew, rules Rome. Second Triumvirate lasts from 43-31 BC. Gaius Octavius rules the Provinces of Sicilia and Africa. 43 BC Mark Antony rules Cisalpine Gaul. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus rules Gallia Narbonensis and Spain. Reign of terror in Rome through proscriptions. 43 BC 130 Senators and 2,000 equestrians are killed. Cicero, Rome’s greatest orator, is prosecuted and killed by order of Marc Antony. Birth of P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid) (43 BC-17 AD). 43 BC Roman Senate founds the city of Lugdunum. 43 BC This is present day Lyon, France. A monument to Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) is erected in the Roman Forum, where he had been murdered in 44 BC. 42 BC Battle of Philippi. Oct.-Nov. 42 BC (Part of the Wars of the Second Triumvirate). Gaius Octavius and Marc Antony defeat G. Cassius Longinus and 20 days later, they defeat Marcus Junius Brutus at Philippi in Macedonia. Both Cassius and Brutus commit suicide. Marcus Antonius (Marc Antony) settles in Egypt. 41 BC Battle of Perusia. 41-40 BC (Part of the Wars of the Second Triumvirate). While Marc Antony is in Egypt, Octavian loyalists under Vipsanius Agrippa trap a rebel force in Perusia (modern Perugia). The rebels capitulate. Agreement of Brundisium (Brindisi). Nov. 40 BC Signed by Gaius Octavius and Marcus Antonius. Partition of the Roman Empire. Marc Antony receives Greece (the East). Gaius Octavian receives the West (Gaul). Marcus Aemilius Lepidus receives Africa. Italy is neutralized. Marc Anthony marries Octavian’s sister Octavia. 40 BC Parthians invade Syria, take Antioch and Sidon, and plunder Jerusalem. They advance as far as the Mediterranean Sea. 40 BC The Parthians establish Antigonus. 40 BC He is the last Hasmonean King of Judaea. Roman conquest of Spain. 38 BC Phraates IV. Ruler of the Parthian Empire. 38-32 BC Return of Marc Antony to Egypt. 38 BC The “Laocoon.” Marble sculpture. 38 BC Marcus Antonius executes Antigonus the Hasmonean King of Judaea. End of the Hasmonean Dynasty. 37 BC Herod the Great, the second son of Antipater, rises to power by the friendship of Marc Antony. He is appointed King of the Jews (Judaea) by the Roman Senate. 37 BC Herod (rules 37-4 BC) takes possession of Jerusalem and Judaea. 37 BC With the tacit approval of the Roman Republic, Herod the Great eliminates All of the rest of the Hasmoneans. 37 BC Rome begins its rule of Palestine. 37 BC Roman rule will end in 476 AD. Roman ruler Marcus Aemillius Lepidus attempts to recover Sicily from Sextus Pompey, son of Gnaeus Pompey. 36 BC Gaius Octavius seizes lands in north Africa that are controlled by his fellow Roman ruler Marcus Aemillius Lepidus. 36 BC Marcus Antonius, still married to Octavia, bigamously marries Cleopatra VII in Egypt. They will have 3 sons. 36 BC Battle of Phraaspa. 36 BC (Part of the Wars of the Second Triumvirate). Marcus Antonius invades Parthia. The Parthians (Phraates IV) defeat Marcus Antonius. He is compelled to retreat with great losses. Marcus Antonius returns to Alexandria and settles with Cleopatra VII of Egypt. Marc Antony neglects his government responsibilities. 36 BC Battle of Mylae (Mylex). August 11, 36 BC Fought between the Second Triumvirate under the command of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and the Pompeians under Sextus Pompey led by Papias in the city of Mylae (modern Milazzo, Sicily). The Pompeians are defeated by M.V. Agrippa. Sextus Pompey escapes. Battle of Naulochus. Sept. 3, 36 BC Fought between the fleets of Sextus Pompey and M.V. Agrippa (admiral of Octavian) off Naulochus, Sicily. Pompeians are defeated. Sextus Pompey, son of Gnaeus Pompey (106-48 BC), is captured and executed by the troops of Marc Antony at Miletus in Asia Minor. 35 BC Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace). (85-8 BC). Roman poet, flourished. ca.35 BC Marcus Antonius gives Cleopatra’s children Roman Provinces. 34 BC Marc Anthony subdues Armenia. 34 BC Dalmatia becomes a Roman Province. 34 BC Marc Antony, formally divorces Octavia, the sister of Octavian. 32 BC The Roman Senate strips Marcus Antonius of his authority, leading to civil war. 32 BC Gaius Octavius declares war on Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII. 32 BC Civil war between Gaius Octavianus and Marc Antony. 32-30 BC Ptolemaic War. 32-30 BC Gaius Octavius eliminates Lepidus. 32 BC End of the Second Triumvirate (43-31 BC). 31 BC Battle of Actium. Sept. 2, 31 BC Julius Caesar’s grand nephew, Gaius Octavian, defeats the combined fleets of Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII at the naval Battle of Actium. Arrival of Gaius Octavian at Alexandria, Egypt. 31 BC Seizure of Alexandria by Gaius Octavius. August 2, 30 BC Suicides of Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII, of Egypt. 30 BC Following the suicides of Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII, Gaius Octavianus makes Egypt a Roman province (Aegyptus). 30 BC Cleopatra VII was the daughter of Ptolemy XI. End of the rule of the Ptolemies in Egypt. Beginning of Roman rule in Egypt. End of the Ptolemaic War (32-30 BC). 30 BC Gaius Octavianus is made the sole ruler of what is still the Roman Republic. 30 BC Gaius Octavian bestows increase of territory to Herod (Judaea). 30 BC The Pantheon, Rome. Begun. c.30 BC Will be completed in 124 AD. Titus Livius (Livy). Roman historian. Begins to write his monumental History of Rome. 29 BC Gaius Octavius back in Rome closes the Temple of Janus, signifying peace. 29 BC Herod “the Great” kills his wife, Mariamne. 29 BC All of Greece becomes a province assigned to the Roman Senate. 27 BC The Roman conquest of Greece had been completed in 146 BC. Octavian is given supreme power by the Roman Senate. Jan. 16, 27 BC The Roman Senate bestows the title of Emperor Augustus (the Venerated, the Illustrious) Caesar on Octavian. Octavian will rule from 27 BC until 14 AD. End of the Roman Republic that had been founded in 509 BC. Marks the beginning of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire will last from 27 BC until 476 AD. Octavian Augustus. Begins a two year expedition in Spain. 27-25 BC His objective is to subdue rebellious tribes there (the Cantabri and the Astures). Vergil (Publius Vergilius Maro) (70-19 BC). “The Aeneid.” c.27 BC Marcus Vitruvius. Roman architect and military engineer. “De Architectura.” c.27 BC On architecture and machinery. Herod begins extensive building operations in Judaea. 25 BC Rebuilds Samaria. Galatia (central Asia Minor), is inherited from King Amyntas. Becomes a Roman Province. 25 BC C. Aelius Gallus, Roman prefect of Egypt. Conducts an unsuccessful expedition to Arabia. 25 BC Octavianus Augustus resigns the consulship. 23 BC Adopts the unofficial title of Princeps-chief of the Republic. Petronius, the successor of C. Aelius Gallus in Egypt, wages successful war against the Ethiopians. 22-21 BC Campaign of Augustus against the Parthians. 20 BC Tigranes is reinstated in the kingdom of Armenia. 20 BC Rebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem by Herod, King of Judaea. 20-19 BC Phraates IV of Parthia. Restores the standards that had been taken from Crassus. 20 BC Completion of the subjugation of the tribes of Spain by Rome. 19 BC Claudius Drusus Germanicus (39-9 BC) is in the East. ca.19-17 BC Phraates IV of Parthia sends his sons as hostages to Rome. 18 BC Germanic tribes defeat Roman army under Marcus Lollius. c.16 BC As a result, Emperor Augustus and his general Tiberius Claudius Nero, carry out punitive campaigns in Gaul and Germany respectively. Moesia is made a Roman province. 16 BC Gaius Octavianus Augustus (63 BC-14 AD) is in Gaul. Reorganization of the provinces: Aquitania, Lugdunensis, Belgica.16-13 BC Advance of Tiberius and Claudius Drusus, the Emperor Octavian’s stepsons, to the upper Danube. The Provinces of Raetia and Noricum are established. The Roman Empire now extends to the Upper Danube River. 15 BC Pax Romana. Roman Empire begins 200 years of peace which will end in 192 AD. 14 BC Revolt in Pannonia (what will later be northern Yugoslavia). 13 BC Subjugation of the Pannonians by Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar (Augustus’s stepson) and Agrippa. 13-9 BC The Germanic Wars of Claudius Drusus (four campaigns in Germania). Subjugation of the Batavians, Frisians, and Chauci. 12-9 BC After struggles with the Quadi and Marcomanni, Claudius Drusus leads Roman troops to the Elbe River. Organization of the left bank of the Rhine River into Germania superior and Germania inferior. 12-9 BC Battle of the Lippe River. 11 BC Claudius Drusus defeats a huge force of several Germanic tribes. Countries subject to Roman dominion. 10 BC In Europe: Italy, Spain, Britain, Gaul, Rhaetia, Vindelicia (now Augsburg), Noricum, Pannonia, Illyria, Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, Maesia, Dacia. In Asia: Asia Minor, Syria, Phonecia, Palestine, the northern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria. In Africa: Egypt, and the whole of the northern coast of Africa. Its distant territories are Scandia, Sarmatia, India, Aethiopia, and Galatia. The city of Rome itself is the center of the Roman Empire. Claudius Drusus Germanicus is killed in a fall from his horse. 9 BC First command of Tiberius (42 BC-37 AD) in Germania. Tiberius advances to the Elbe River. 8-6 BC Death of Virgil and Horace. 8 BC Death of Herod of Judaea. The Kingdom of Judea is partitioned among his three sons. 4 BC Herod Archaelaus is ethnarch of Samaria and Judaea.

The Annunciation of the coming birth of Jesus Christ. c. 1 BC Birth of John the Baptist. c. 1 BC Probable year of the birth of the Lord Jesus Christ at Bethlehem in what was then Roman Palestine. c. 1 BC The Circumcision of Christ eight days after his birth in accordance with Jewish law. c. 1 BC Presentation of Jesus in the temple forty days after his birth in accordance with Jewish law. c. 1 BC The Visit of the Magi. c. 1 BC The Flight into Egypt. c. 1 BC The Massacre of the Innocents. c. 1 BC Herod “the Great” orders all of the male children age two and under to be killed. Death of Herod “the Great”. c. 1 BC Herod dies in great agony from a loathsome disease, which drove him to try to kill himself. Herod Antipas, the son of Herod “the Great”, rules outside Judaea, in Peraea and Galilee. 1 BC-39 AD Philip, a Herodian, rules in the northeastern areas. 1 BC-34 AD Development of Gothic kingdom on the lower Vistula River (located in modern day Poland). c. 1 BC Beginning of the Christian Era. 1 AD Augustus Gaius Caesar (63 BC-14 AD) meets with Phraates V, the King of Parthia, on the Euphrates River. Gaius Caesar concludes a peace with him. 2 AD “Aqua Alsietina”. Roman aqueduct is built. c. 3 AD The rule of Emperor Augustus is renewed for a ten year period. 3 AD Joseph and Mary return from Egypt with Jesus Christ and take up residence in Nazareth. c. 4 AD Second command of the Roman general Tiberius in Germany. 4-6 AD Phraataces, King of Parthia, is killed. 4 AD The crown is offered to Orodes III, King of Parthia. Nicolaus of Damascus. Greek historian and philosopher. “History of The World”. 15 volumes. 4 AD “Historia Universalis”. (“Universal History”). 144 volumes. Completed. Cunobelinus (Cymbeline), king of the Catuvellauni, is recognized by the Romans as “Rex Brittonum”, a king of Britain. 5 AD Cymbeline reigns in Britain (5-40 AD). Lombard tribes on the lower Elbe are defeated by Roman legions. 5 AD Emperor Gaius Augustus. Tired of Herodian misrule, establishes a procuratorship in Judaea. 6 AD The Romans depose Herod Archaelaus. Judea becomes a Roman Province. Romans appoint a Procurator to govern Judea. The Jewish Sanhedrin and the high priest are partially independent. Oponius is the first Procurator of Judaea. 6-9 AD Germanicus is sent into Germany. 7 AD Vonones I becomes king of the Parthian Empire. 8 AD Roman general Tiberius suppresses revolts against Roman rule in Dalmatia and Pannonia. 9 AD Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. 9 AD The destruction of three Roman legions under Publius Quintilius Varus during a German revolt of the Germanic tribe the Cherusci lead by Arminius in the Teutoburg Forest. Roman Province of Pannonia is established. 9 AD Secures the Danube frontier. Marcus Ambivulus is the second Procurator of Judaea. 9-12 AD Artabanus II becomes ruler of Parthia. 11 AD Germanicus. Secures Germania Inferior (lower) and the Rhine. 11 AD Overthrow of the Artaxiad Dynasty in Armenia by the Romans. 12 AD Jesus Christ, age 12, is at the Temple of Jerusalem questioning the priests and the rabbis during the feast of the Passover. 12 AD Annius Rufus is appointed the third Procurator of the Roman province of Judaea. 12 AD Annius Rufus is Procurator 12-15 AD. Thaddeus of Florence. “De virtutibus aquae vitae”. c. 12 AD (“On the Virtues of Alcohol”). Describes the medical uses of alcohol. Abgarus of Edessa is reinstalled as king of Osroene, also known as the kingdom of Edessa. 13 AD Death of Augustus Caesar (63 BC-14 AD) at Nola (age 76). 14 AD End of the reign of Augustus. Tiberius (Claudius Nero), step-son of Augustus, becomes Roman Emperor. Reign of Roman Emperor Tiberius. 14-37 AD Statue of Augustus. ca. 14-27 AD Emperor wearing breastplate with allegorical and historical reliefs. Pont du Gard, near Nîmes is built. c. 14 AD Greatest of all Roman aqueducts carries water along the top tier of arches about 180 feet above the river. Germanicus Caesar puts down revolt by the Pannonian legions. 14 AD Three expeditions of Germanicus against the Germans. 14-16 AD Near the mouths of the lower Rhine River, defeating Arminius. Valerius Gratus is the fourth Procurator (prefect) of the Roman province of Judaea since its conquest by Pompey. Valerius Gratus rules Judaea. 15-26 AD Germanicus launches a two pronged attack from Vetera and Moguntiacum. On his return he visits the battlefield of the Teutoburg Forest. 15 AD Germanicus arranges for the burial of the remains of the army of Varus. Germanicus, commanding a Roman army of 50,000 men, gains a great victory at Idistaviso. Germanicus defeats the German leader, Arminius. 16 AD Germanicus defeats the Germans at the Amasius river estuary and the Weser. 16 AD Germanicus Caesar claims Germania for Rome. 16 AD Emperor Tiberius orders Germanicus Caesar to return to Rome. 17 AD Germanicus returns to Rome. Rome celebrates his victories over the Cherusci, the Chatti, and other Germanic barbarian tribes west of the Elbe River. May 26, 17 AD Emperor Tiberius. Sends his nephew Germanicus to Armenia to supervise the installation of a new king and to lead a military campaign against Parthia. 17 AD Cappadocia (Asia Minor) becomes a Roman Province. 17 AD Sejanus becomes Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. 17 AD Josephus Caiaphas is made high priest (18-36) of the Jews in Jerusalem. He is appointed by the Romans. 18 AD Death of Germanicus Caesar in Syria. He was probably poisoned. 19 AD The Romans suppress a revolt against Roman rule among the Gallic tribes, the Treveri and the Aedui. 21 AD Impact of the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Sejanus, who moves the guard to a camp on the outskirts of Rome. His accusations lead to major public trials, executions, and suicides. 22-31 AD Lucius Aelius Sejanus reputedly poisons Tiberius’ son Drusus hoping to become emperor. 23 AD Strabo (64 BC-24 AD). Greek historian and philosopher. “Geographia” (Gr: “Geographica”). c. 23 AD Attempts to collect all known knowledge pertaining to Geography. Seventeen volumes. End of the Roman war with Numidia and Mauretania. Both territories are annexed by the Romans. 24 AD Pontius Pilate is appointed the fifth Procurator of the Roman province of Judaea since its conquest by Pompey. 26 AD Pontius Pilate rules Judaea 26-36 AD. Lucius Aelius Sejanus persuades Tiberius to retire to Capreae (Capri). Rome is left under the control of Sejanus, Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Tiberius still continues however, to govern in absence. 26 AD The Romans crush an uprising of Thracian tribesmen. 26 AD The Jewish prophet John the Baptist begins teaching and preaching. c. 27 AD An Arch of Triumph is erected at Rimini in honor of the former Roman Emperor Augustus. 27 AD The Baptism of Jesus Christ by John the Baptist. c. 30 AD The three temptations of Jesus Christ while he is forty days in the desert. c. 30 AD Annunciation of the Kingdom of God by the Lord Jesus Christ. 30 AD Aulus Cornelius Celsus. Roman medical writer. “De Re Medica” (“On Medical Matters”). c. 30 AD Murder of the Jewish Prophet John the Baptist during the reign of Herod Antipas (on Herod Antipas’ orders). c. 31 AD The Sermon on the Mount. c. 31 AD Fall and execution of Lucius Sejanus, the Praetorian Prefect, as a conspirator against the Emperor Tiberius. 31 AD The last week of Jesus Christ while he is in the flesh. ca. 33 AD Entry into Jerusalem and cleansing of the Temple of Jerusalem. Thursday: The Last Supper. The Betrayal of Christ. The arrest of Christ in the Garden of Gethsemane. Friday: The trial and conviction of the Lord Jesus Christ before the Jewish Sanhedrin at daybreak on Friday. He is brought to Pontius Pilate, to Herod, and then back to Pontius Pilate on Friday morning. Crucifixion of Jesus Christ in Jerusalem, at the age of 33, during the reign of the Roman Emperor Tiberius (9:00 AM Friday morning). c. 33 AD Darkness for three hours (12:00-3:00 PM). Death of Jesus (3:00 PM on Friday). The Veil (curtain) of the Temple of Jerusalem is torn in two. An earthquake in Jerusalem. Jesus is buried toward the evening. The tomb is sealed on Saturday. The Resurrection of Jesus Christ, Sunday at dawn, three days after his Crucifixion. c. 33 AD The Ascension of Christ, fifty days after the Resurrection. c. 33 AD Day of Pentecost. c. 33 AD The first community (Baptism and the Eucharist) fifty days after the Resurrection of Jesus Christ (Pentecost). The followers of Jesus Christ are led by Saint Peter the Apostle. Saint Peter the Apostle leads the Church. 34-67 AD Saul (the future St. Paul) persecutes the followers of Jesus Christ. Saul is sent by the High Council of the Jews to Damascus in order to fight and destroy the followers of Jesus Christ. 34-36 AD Saint Stephen. Killed by the Jews in Jerusalem. December 26, 34 AD First martyr of Jesus Christ. On this day, he completes his 34th year. Death of Herod Philip, the tetrarch. 34 AD Tiradates becomes king of Parthia (until 36 AD). 35 AD The Conversion of Saul. January 25, 36 AD On his way to Damascus, Saul (Paul) hears the voice of Jesus Christ. Pontius Pilate suppresses an uprising of the Samaritans (Samaria). 36 AD Pontius Pilate is ordered back to Rome in order to render an account for harshly suppressing a Jewish uprising. 36 AD Judea had experienced over three years of rioting and chaos. Marcellus is made governor of Judaea and Samaria. 36 AD Death of Roman Emperor Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus. 37 AD He is succeeded by Tiberius Gemellus and Gaius Caesar Germanicus (“Caligula” or “Little Boot”) the youngest son of Germanicus. Caligula kills Tiberius Gemellus. Caligula is made Emperor of the Roman Empire. 37 AD Reign of Caligula. 37-41 AD With Caligula begins the enforced adoration of the emperor as the Supreme God. This will be the cause of the slaughter of tens of thousands of Christians until the reign of Constantine. First visit of Saul (now Paul) to the city of Jerusalem. c. 38 AD Three years after his conversion while he was on the road to Damascus, Paul travels to Jerusalem in order to meet St. Peter, the head of the twelve apostles and the head of the Church. Paul stays with Peter for fifteen days. Herod Agrippa, King of northern Palestine. 37-44 AD Caligula gives him two thirds of the former kingdom of Herod “the Great”. Birth of Nero (b.37-d.68). 37 AD Caligula becomes increasingly mentally unstable. 38 AD The gentile (that is, non-Jewish) Cornelius and his family are baptized by Saint Peter, the Head of the Church. c. 39 AD Caligula and Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo become Roman consuls. 39 AD Legio (Legion) XV Primigenia and Legio XXII Primigenia are levied for the German frontier. 39 AD The Jews drive out all Christians from the Jewish synagogues. ca. 40 AD One of the earliest Christian churches. Built at Corinth, Greece. 40 AD The evil emperor Caligula finally proclaims himself to be a god. 40 AD The Quadi, a barbarian Germanic tribe, settle in what is modern day Moravia and Slovakia. 40 AD Vardanes becomes King of Parthia. 40 AD He is opposed by Gotarzes II, his brother. St. Mark, the Evangelist, founds the church of Alexandria (Egypt). 40 AD St. James the Greater (meaning the older), one of the twelve Apostles is preaching in Roman Hispania (what is now Spain). 40 AD Martyrdom of St. James the Greater (the son of Zebedee).March 25, 41 AD He is condemned to death by Herod Agrippa I. He is beheaded. St. James the Greater is the first of the twelve Apostles to be martyred. Rome annexes Mauretania. 41 AD The evil regime of Caligula is finally ended with his murder by the Prefect of the Praetorians, Cassius Chaerea. Jan. 24, 41 AD Claudius is made emperor by the Praetorian Guard. Claudius succeeds Caligula as Roman Emperor. Jan. 25, 41 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Claudius I (Tiberius Claudius Nero). 41-54 AD Claudius is Caligula’s uncle and the son of Drusus. Emperor Claudius appoints Herod Agrippa I as king of Judaea. 41 AD Gives him the remaining one third of Judaea. Herod Agrippa I will be the last Jewish king of Judaea. He is appointed by the Romans (rules 41-44 AD). German tribes attack across the Rhine River into Roman territory. The barbarians are stopped by the Roman forces. 41 AD Saint Matthew the Apostle. “The Gospel of Matthew.” c. 42 AD St. Peter, the Apostle. After filling the see of Antioch for seven years, Peter goes to Rome. 42 AD St. Paul is bought to Antioch by St. Barnabas. c. 42 AD Desolation of Judea by a terrible famine. c. 42 AD Number of thousands of deaths is unknown. At Antioch, the followers of Jesus, are first called “Christians”. c. 42 AD After almost one hundred years after Julius Caesar invaded England, Emperor Claudius sends several Roman legions (20,000 Roman troops) under Aulus Plautius to complete the conquest of the island. 43 AD Battle of Medway River. 43 AD The Romans under Aulus Plautius defeat the Britons under Caractacus. Caractacus however escapes. Emperor Claudius lands in Britain and accepts the surrender of the Britons at Camulodunum (now Colchester). Claudius proclaims that the island is now a Roman province. The Roman occupation of Britain will continue for the next almost 400 years until 407 AD. Founding of Londinium (now London) by the Roman armies. 43 AD The Romans begin building the fortifications of Londinium. Caractacus (Caractus) attempts to revolt against the Roman armies that occupy England. 43-50 AD Caractacus is powerless to prevent the subjugation of England by the Roman armies. Herod Agrippa. Continues to persecute the followers of the Lord Jesus Christ that are in the city of Jerusalem. 43 AD St. Paul and St. Barnabas bring relief from the Antioch Christians to the church that is at Jerusalem where there is a famine. 44 AD Saint James the Less (meaning the Younger). Leads the followers of Jesus Christ that are in Jerusalem. 44 AD Herod Agrippa I, age 54, finally dies a horrible death. 44 AD Judaea once more becomes a procuratorial province of the Roman Empire. Saint Paul is sent out on his missionary journeys. 45 AD First journey of Paul and Barnabas to Asia Minor and Greece. 45-49 AD Circumcision and Jewish dietary laws are no longer observed by them. They go to Cyprus, Perga, Antioch in Pisidia, and the cities of Lycaonia. Establishment of the Roman province of Thrace. 46 AD Saint Mark. "The Gospel of Mark". 46 AD St. Paul is in South Galatia. 47-48 AD Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo. Made commander of the Roman army in Germania Inferior. 47 AD Corbulo conquers the Chauci and fights against the Cherusci and Frisians. Suppression of the Frisian revolt by Roman general Corbulo. 47 AD Publius Ostorius Scapula. Replaces Aulus Plautius as the Roman ruler (governor) of Britain. 47 AD Corbulo orders the construction of the canal Fossa Corbulonis, between the Rhine River and Meuse River in what is now called the Netherlands. Canal connects the city Forum Hadriani (Voorburg). 47 AD Romans build the Traiectum fortification near the mouth of the Rhine River. Will later become the city of Utrecht. 47 AD Ananias becomes the high priest of Israel in Judaea. 47 AD Saint Luke the Evangelist. "The Gospel of Luke". 48 AD Council of the Apostles of Jesus Christ at Jerusalem. c. 48 AD Saint Peter and the original apostles assume the missionary activity among the Jews who do not believe that Christ is the Messiah, Savior, and God. Paul and Barnabas are sent among the non-Jews (gentiles). Proclamation of independence from Jewish ritualistic law and proclamation of the Gratia Dei (the Grace of God). Roman legions invade Wales. 48 AD Flood. Thames River overflows in England. 10,000 perish. 48 AD Execution of Messalina, the wife of Emperor Claudius. 48 AD Claudius marries his niece Agrippina. Herod Agrippa II is made King of Judaea. 48 AD St. Paul begins writing his epistles (letters) to the gentiles (non-Jews). 48 AD St. Paul. “Epistle to the Galatians”. 48 AD St. Paul. Third visit to Jerusalem. 49 AD Second journey of St. Paul (St. Barnabas is with him). 49-52 AD Includes longer stays at Corinth (c. 50-52 AD) where Paul founds the Church of Corinth. Melankomas is the boxing champion of the 207th Olympic Games. 49 AD Publius Ostorius Scapula founds a “colonia” for Roman veterans of war, at Camulodunum (modern day Colchester). 49 AD Publius Scapula founds the city of Verulamium (modern day St. Albans). A Roman legion is retained on the borders of the Silures tribe of South Wales in preparation for invasion. Emperor Claudius expels the Christians from Rome. 49 AD Beginning of famine during the reign of Claudius. 49 AD Emperor Claudius adopts Nero, Agrippina's son by a previous marriage, as his successor. 50 AD The city of Cologne is founded by the Romans as “Colonia Agrippina”. It is built on the site of Oppidum Ubiorum, the chief town of the Ubii tribe. 50 AD Pedanios Dioscorides. Greek biologist and physician. “De Materia Medica”. Five volumes. c. 50 AD Includes a discussion of the medicinal properties of plants. Acqua Claudia. Aqueduct from the Campagna to Rome is built. 50 AD Death of Vonones II, after a few months on the throne. 50 AD Vologeses I, his son, becomes king of the Parthian Empire. Vologeses I rules 50-90 AD. Aurelius Cornelius Celsus. Roman. Provides a comprehensive encyclopedia including philosophy, rhetoric, oratory, military science, jurisprudence, medicine, agriculture, language, and history. c. 50 AD Founding of the city of Utrecht by the Romans. 50 AD The Romans build a bridge across the Thames River in what is now called London. 50 AD Arrival of Saint Paul at Corinth. 50 AD Saint Paul remains in Corinth for 18 months. 50-52 AD Saint Paul. “First Epistle to the Thessalonians”. c. 50 AD Saint Paul. “Second Epistle to the Thessalonians”. 51-52 AD Famine. Greece. 51 AD Number of thousands of deaths is unknown. Battle of Shropshire. 51 AD Roman troops led by Publius Ostorius Scapula defeat and capture Caractacus, the British defender of Southwest England, at Shropshire. Caractacus is taken to Rome in chains. Emperor Claudius decides to free Caractacus. Arrival of St. Thomas the Apostle at Kodungallur, on the Malabar Coast of India. 52 AD Publius Ostorius Scapula dies while he is campaigning against the Silure tribe in South Wales. 52 AD Scapula is replaced by Didius Gallus who quickly suppresses the rebellion. Parthia fights against Rome for the possession of Armenia Minor. 52 AD Seneca. Roman philosopher. “Quaestiones naturales” c. 52 AD (“Natural Questions”). On physics, geography, astronomy, and meteorology. Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus). Born in Roman Novum Comum (Como) Italy. "Naturalis Historia". c. 52 AD (“History of Nature”). 37 volumes. On astronomy, biology, zoology, botany, and geography. Saint Paul. Sets out on his third missionary voyage (53-58 AD). 53 AD Travels to Asia Minor, Ephesus, Macedonia, Achaia, and Corinth. St. Paul is in Ephesus. c. 53-54 AD St. Evodius (d.c. 64). Succeeds Saint Peter the Apostle as the Bishop of Antioch. 53 AD St. Paul. Second journey to Corinth. c. 54-58 AD Death of Emperor Claudius (probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina). Nero, the son of Agrippina, becomes Emperor. 54 AD Reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. 54-68 AD Nero (b.37-d.68) is the last of the Julio-Claudian line of Roman Emperors. His full name is Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus. Nero destroys Britannicus and all of the Julian family. Domitius Corbulo marches his legions (Legio VI Ferrata and Legio X) into the mountains of Cappadocia (Asia Minor) and makes camp there. 54 AD Part of the training of his men consists of marches of 25 miles. Famine. England. 54 AD Number of thousands dead is unknown. Rome sends general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo to subdue Parthia.c. 55 AD Death of the Virgin Mary. c. 55 AD St. Paul. “First Epistle to the Corinthians”. Written from Ephesus. 55 AD Revolt of the Egyptians. 55 AD St. Paul. “Second Epistle to the Corinthians”. Written. 56 AD St. Paul. “Epistle to the Romans”. Written while he is at Corinth. c. 56 AD Quintus Veranius Nepos. Becomes governor of Britain in place of Aulus Didius Gallus. 57 AD St. Agabus meets St. Paul at Caesarea Maritima and prophesizes that Paul will be captured by the Jews at Jerusalem. 58 AD St. John the Apostle. "The Gospel of John". 58 AD Return of St. Paul to Jerusalem in order to report on his activities. c. 58 AD The arrest of St. Paul in Jerusalem. 58 AD The imprisonment of Paul in Caesarea. St. Paul of Tarsus. “Epistle to the Colossians”. c.59 AD Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo invades Armenia. c. 58 AD Roman war with the Armenians and the Parthians. Roman conquest of Armenia. 58-63 AD Nero has his mother Agrippina killed. 59 AD Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, Roman governor of Britain. Captures the island of Mona (Anglesley), which is the last stronghold of the Druids (Druidism). 60 AD Hero of Alexandria. Writes “Mechanica” (Mechanics), and “Pneumatica” (Pneumatics). c. 60 AD Emperor Claudius prohibits Druidism throughout the Roman Empire. The Romans detested the Druid practice of human sacrifice. 60 AD St. Paul is arrested and imprisoned by Felix, the Procurator of Judaea. 60 AD Porcius Festus succeeds Felix as the Procurator of Judaea. 60 AD Saint Paul. Brought to trial before Porcius Festus, the Procurator of Judaea. Paul appeals to Rome. 60 AD Paul appeals to the judgment of the Emperor of Rome. He is freed. c. 60 AD St. Paul is taken to Rome, but is shipwrecked on the island of Malta. Paul remains for three months on Malta and converts Publius, the first Bishop of Malta. c. 60 AD Paul sets foot for the first time on Italian soil. He is under official Imperial auspices with a sympathetic Roman military escort. Spring 60 AD Martyrdom of Saint Andrew the Apostle in the city of Patras. He is crucified on an “X” shaped cross. November 30, 60 AD Heron of Alexandria. "Metrica" (“Measurements”). 60 AD Contains formulas for the calculation of areas and volumes. The Revolt of Boudicca (also Boadicea), 61-62 AD. 61 AD Boadicea, queen of the Iceni (modern Norfolk) tribe in Britain descends on the undefeated town of Camulodunum (modern Colchester). The tribesmen massacre the Roman settlers and the Britons who were on the side of the Romans. Boadicea, leads her rebels, and sweeps down on Londinium (early London). They massacre all of the inhabitants. 61 AD Boadicea turns northeast to Verulamium (modern Saint Albans). They massacre all of the inhabitants. By now they have massacred approximately 80,000 people. 61 AD Suetonius Paulinus, governor of Roman Britain, leads two Roman legions (10,000 men) and makes a forced march from Wales to Verulamium. Paulinus directs a coordinated attack on Boadicea’s horde. Roman discipline defeats the savage horde. Almost 80,000 of the horde are killed by the Romans. Boadicea is finally totally defeated by the Roman governor of Britain Gaius Suetonius Paulinus. She takes poison and dies. 61 AD St. Paul. "Epistle to the Philippians". c. 61 AD Martyrdom of Saint Barnabas. 61 AD Barnabas is stoned to death at Salamis, in Cyprus. Nero (b.37-d.68) divorces and exiles his wife, Octavia. 62 AD Nero has his wife Octavia killed. Nero marries Poppaea Sabina, the wife of his friend Otho. Seneca the Younger (c.5 BC-65 AD). Roman philosopher. Resigns from his position at Nero's court. 62 AD Romans are defeated by the Parthians at Rhandeia in Armenia. 62 AD St. James the Less (meaning the younger). Writes the "Epistle of James". c. 62 AD Martyrdom of Saint James the Less (meaning the younger). 62 AD Saint James the Less was the first Bishop of Jerusalem. He is thrown from the pinnacle of the Temple of Jerusalem by the Pharisees. He is stoned, and then finally clubbed to death. The surviving Apostles elect St. Simeon (d.107), the brother of Saint James the Less, to succeed him as the Bishop of Jerusalem. St. Paul is released from prison in Rome. 62 AD He is allowed to stay in Rome but he is under house arrest. St. Paul of Tarsus. "Epistle to the Ephesians". c. 63 AD St. Paul. Revisits Ephesus, Macedonia, and Greece. 63-67 AD Vespasian becomes governor of Roman Africa. 63 AD Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo invades Armenia and defeats Tiridates I. Tiridates I accepts Roman sovereignty over Armenia. 63 AD Burning of Rome. July 19-25, 64 AD Emperor Nero watches while Rome burns. The city burns for eight days. Eleven out of the city's 15 districts are reduced to ashes. Nero (b.37-d.68), who is responsible for starting the fire, blames the Christians for the great fire that almost destroyed all of Rome. 64 AD Nero will rebuild the city of Rome. First persecution of Christians in Rome is begun by Nero. Continues until his death by suicide in 68 AD. Thousands of Christians are scourged, killed, burned, and tortured to death during the four year period (Neronian Persecution). Martyrdom of Saint Peter the Apostle. 64 AD St. Peter is crucified on the Mons Vaticanus. Nero is emperor at this time. Gessius Florus is 7th Roman Procurator of Judaea. 64-66 AD Phoenicia is incorporated into the Roman Province of Syria. 64 AD Phoenicia ceases to exist. Martyrdom of Saint Matthias. c. 65 AD He is stoned to death at Colchis. Matthias had been selected by the apostles to replace Judas Iscariot. Pisonian conspiracy led by Gaius Piso is uncovered. 65 AD Intended to get Nero, the degenerate emperor, out of the throne. Lucius Annaeus Seneca, also called Seneca the Younger (c.5 BC-65 AD). Roman Stoic philosopher. An advisor to the degenerate Roman Emperor, Seneca commits suicide at the order of Nero (b.37-d.68) after being falsely accused of conspiracy. 65 AD St. Mark. "The Gospel According to Saint Mark". c. 65 AD Death of Tigranes. End of the war between Parthia and the Romans when Tiridates accepts the crown of Armenia from Nero. 65 AD Outbreak of the Jewish War (66-70 AD). 66 AD Revolt of Roman Judaea against Roman rule. The Jews revolt against the rule of the Romans. 66 AD The Jews capture the fortress of Masada overlooking the Red Sea. Roman general Cestius Gallus marches into Judaea with an army of 30,000 men in order to put down the Jewish rebellion. 66 AD St. Paul of Tarsus. Arrested and returned to Rome. This is his second imprisonment at Rome. 67 AD Martyrdom of Saint Paul of Tarsus. Paul is beheaded on the road to Ostia. c. 67 AD Roman general Vespasian, now age 58, is sent to Judaea where he begins the suppression of the revolt of the Jews against Roman rule. 67 AD Joseph Ben Matthias, the Jewish leader, attempts to hold the fortress of Jotapata against a siege. 67 AD He surrenders to General Titus Flavius Vespasian after 47 days. Martyrdom of St. Nazarius. c. 68 AD He is tortured and then beheaded at Milan. Insurrection of C. Julius Vindex in Gaul is put down. 68 AD Flavius Josephus. Jewish historian. "The History of the Jewish People". 68 AD St. Linus becomes the Second Pope (Bishop of Rome). 67 AD Pope: 67-79 AD. Rebellion of Roman Legions and the Praetorian Guard against the Roman Emperor Nero. 68 AD The suicide of Nero (b.37-d.68) aged 30. 68 AD Nero stabs himself to death. Extinction of the House of Caesar. Galba, commander in Hispania Terraconensis becomes emperor of Rome. Reign of Roman Emperor Galba. 68-69 AD "Year of the Four Emperors". 68-69 AD Rhine legions in Germania acclaim their general, Aulus Vitellius as Roman emperor in opposition to Galba. 69 AD Marcus Salvius Otho (b.32-d.69), a former friend of Nero, has Emperor Galba killed. The Roman Senate declares Otho is Roman emperor. 69 AD Otho is briefly Roman Emperor. 69 AD Battle of Bedriacum (near Cremona). 69 AD Aulus Vitellius (commander of the legions on the Rhine) defeats Otho. Otho commits suicide by stabbing himself to death. Aulus Vitellius becomes emperor of Rome. Eastern governors proclaim Vespasianus, the general in Judaea, emperor of Rome. 69 AD Vespasian (Titus Flavius Vespasianus), general in Judaea, is recalled from Judaea. Vespasian leaves his son Titus in charge of the campaign in Judaea. Vespasianus defeats and kills Aulus Vitellius in a street battle. 69 AD Vespasian is formally made Emperor of Rome. 69 AD Vespasian is at Alexandria, Egypt. 69 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Vespasian (b.9-d.79). 69-79 AD (Titus Flavius Vespasianus) . Vespasian founded the Flavian Dynasty (Vespasian, Titus, Domitian). Vespasian strengthens the eastern boundaries of the Roman Empire. Revolt of the Batavians in Belgian Gaul against the Romans. 69-70 AD The Revolt is led by Claudius Civilis. Marcus Vettius Bolanus. Becomes the new governor of Roman Britain. 69 AD G. Suetonius Tranquillus (70-146). Born. 70 AD Roman author, scholar, historian, and biographer. St. Matthew the Apostle. “Gospel According to Saint Matthew”. Written. c. 70 AD Now that he has been proclaimed Emperor, Vespasian returns to Rome from Jerusalem, where he has John of Giscola, the Zealot leader of the Jews under siege. 70 AD Vespasian leaves Titus, his son, to continue the siege of Jerusalem. Conquest and destruction of the city of Jerusalem by Titus, the son of Roman Emperor Flavius Vespasian. 70 AD Titus, at the head of a Roman army, suppresses the Jewish revolt against Rome. Titus captures and destroys Jerusalem including Solomon's Temple at Jerusalem. 1,000,000 dead. Titus completes the Roman subjugation of Rloman Judaea. Disappearance of the Pharisees after the destruction of the Temple. The Jewish High priesthood and the Sanhedrin are abolished by the Romans. Followers of Jesus Christ are persecuted under Roman Law and worship in the catacombs of Rome. 70 AD Construction of the Forum at Rome under the reign of Roman Emperor Vespasian. 70 AD Vespasian. Roman Emperor. Orders the building of the Arch of Titus celebrating the conquest of Jerusalem by general Titus. 71 AD Philosophers are banished from Rome. 71 AD Martyrdom of Saint Thomas the Apostle. 72 AD The Apostle Thomas is killed by Hindu priests at Mylapore, India. Roman general Flavius Silva captures Masada, the last stronghold of the Jews in Palestine. 73 AD Completion of the conquest of Judea by the Romans. End of the Revolt of the Jews (66-73 AD). Vespasian. Roman Emperor. Begins the extension of the Roman Empire into what is now modern day Germany (until 74 AD). 73 AD St. Luke. "The Gospel According to Saint Luke". Written. c. 73 AD Martyrdom of Saint Mark the Evangelist. c. 74 AD Vespasian. Roman emperor. Orders the construction (75-79) of the Colosseum (originally called the Amphitheatrum Flavium - amphitheatre of Vespasia) at Rome. 75 AD Sixtus Julius Frontinius, ruler of Roman Britain, subdues the Silure tribe and other hostile tribes in Wales. 76 AD Frontinus establishes a Roman fortress at Isca Augusta (Chaerleon) for Legio (Legion) II Augusta. Gnaeus Julius Agricola is made governor of Roman Britannia (77-84 AD). Agricola replaces Sixtus Julius Frontinus. 77 AD Arrival of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93) in Britain. 77 AD Agricola is the imperial governor in Britain (77-84 AD). The purpose of his arrival is to complete the conquest of Britain that was begun by Julius Caesar in the first century BC. Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93) subdues the Ordovices tribe in Wales. He pursues the remnant of the tribe to Anglesey, the island of the Druids (Druidism). 77 AD In the winter of 77AD, Gnaeus Julius Agricola conquers Anglesey. 77 AD Agricola then disperses his army to their winter quarters. Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93). Continues the Roman conquest of Britain. 77-84 AD Agricola conquers the north part of England. Completed in 84 AD. Death of Vologases I. Pacorus II becomes king of the Parthian Empire. 78 AD Rules 78-115. Death of Vespasian. Vespasian is succeeded by his son,Titus. 79 AD Titus (age 38) is Roman Emperor. 79-81 AD Martyrdom of Saint Linus, the successor of Saint Peter. 79 AD Saint Linus is succeeded by Saint Anacletus (79-91). Eruption of Mount Vesuvius (accompanied by earthquake). Aug. 24, 79 AD Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Oplontis are destroyed and buried by the volcanic eruption. An estimated 16,000 persons are buried alive. Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93). Founds the Roman fortress Deva Victrix. 79 AD Will become the future Chester. Founds the Roman fortress Mamucian in the north west part of England. Will become the future Manchester. Emperor Titus completes construction of the Colosseum at Rome. 79 AD Josephus. Jewish historian. “The History of the Jewish War”. Written 75-79. Completed. 79 AD Famine and pestilence ravage the Roman world. In Rome alone, 10,000 die in one day. Thousands perish. 79-80 AD General Agricola builds a fleet for the planned conquest of Caledonia. Agricola will also finally prove that England is an island (85 AD). 80 AD Eifel Aquaduct is constructed. 80 AD “Book of the Acts of the Apostles”. c. 80 AD Anthrax sweeps through the Roman Empire. 80 AD Completion of the Baths of Titus. 80 AD St. John the Apostle. “Gospel According to St. John”. Written. c. 80 AD Another terrible fire in Rome. 80 AD Death of Roman Emperor Titus. 81 AD Reign of the Roman Emperor Domitian. 81-96 AD Domitian is the son of Vespasian, and younger brother (aged 29) of Titus. The reign of Domitian is characterized by continued persecutions of the followers of Jesus Christ (the Domitian Persecution). Completion of the construction of the “Arch of Titus” at Rome by Emperor Domitian. 81 AD Its purpose is to memorialize the conquest of Jerusalem by his brother Titus. Emperor Domitian. Begins the building of defense lines on the German frontier of the Roman Empire. 81 AD The Caledonians rise up in great numbers against the Romans. 82 AD They attack the camp of Legio (Legion) IX Hispana during the night. Agricola sends his cavalry. The Caledonians are forced to flee. Emperor Domitian. Campaigns across the Rhine River in Germania. 83 AD Domitian defeats the Chatti, a Germanic tribe. His victory allows the construction of fortifications (Limes) along the Rhine frontier. The Romans build the legionary fortress Inchtuthil in Scotland. 83 AD Gnaeus Julius Agricola defeats the various tribes of Scotland. 83 AD Annexation of Northern Britain by the Romans. 83 AD Roman power in Britain now extends as far north as Scotland. Battle of Mons Graupius. 84 AD Romans under Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93) defeat the Caledonians at Mt. Graupius (probably near modern day Aberdeen) in Rome's deepest northward penetration of Britain. Completion of the Roman conquest of Britain (Britannia). 84 AD Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93). Builds Roman fortresses between the Clyde and Forth rivers in Scotland. 84 AD Emperor Domitian recalls Julius Agricola in order to help repel barbarian invaders along the Rhine and Danube Valleys. 84 AD Domitian throws back a barbarian invasion along the Danube River. 85 AD Roman forces under Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93) successfully circumnavigate the British Isles. 85 AD Dacians under Decabulus engage in two wars against the Romans from 85 to 88/89. 85 AD Domitian repulses a Dacian invasion of Moesia. 85 AD Domitian Persecution of the Christians. 85-96 AD Severe persecution of the followers of Jesus Christ is ordered by Roman Emperor Domitian. Roman general Trajan begins a campaign to crush an uprising of Germanic tribes. 86 AD Romans divide Germania into two provinces. 86 AD Germania Inferior and Germania Superior. First Battle of Tapae. 86 AD The Romans are defeated by the Dacians. Julius Maternus. Roman explorer. Explores western Africa. c. 87 AD Decabulus becomes king of Dacia. 87 AD End of the First Dacian War. 88 AD Founding of Aquincum (old Budapest, Obuda) by the Romans. 88 AD Quintilian (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus). Roman. "Institutio Oratoria". Twelve books. Begun. 88 AD Writes a major study of Rhetoric. Domitian is defeated by the Marcomanni and Quadi of what is now called Bohemia. 89 AD Cologne becomes the capital of Germania Inferior. 90 AD St. John the Apostle is exiled to the isle of Patmos. 90 AD Martyrdom of St. Antipas. 90 AD Called by St. John, "my faithful witness", (Acts 2:13). Antipas is burned to death during the Domitian persecution of the Church. St. John the Apostle. “The Book of Revelation”. Written at Patmos. c. 90 AD Death of Vologeses I of Parthia. 90 AD Arsaces XXIV is in alliance with the Roman Empire. Nicomachus of Gerasa (60-120). From Gerasa in Roman Syria. "Arithmetike eisagoge" (also called “Introductio Arithmetica”). c.90 AD (“Introduction to Arithmetic”). This is the first work to treat the subject of arithmetic as a separate subject from geometry. Summarizes the existing knowledge of number theory up to that time. Martyrdom of St. Cletus (Anacletus, Greek), Pope, in Rome. 91 AD Clement, Bishop of Rome (pontificate). Clement succeeds Saint Cletus as Pope. 91-100 AD Josephus (originally Joseph ben Matthias). Jewish historian. "Jewish Antiquities". Completed. Written in the Aramaic language. 93 AD Romans found the city of Lindum (modern day Lincoln) in England. 94 AD Martyrdom of Saint Onesimus, a disciple of Saint Paul. 95 AD St. Onesimus is stoned to death in Rome. Appearance of a severe form of malaria in the areas surrounding the city of Rome. 95 AD The Roman conquest of West and South Germany is completed by finishing the “Limes” (fortified frontier road). 96 AD Marcus Ulpius Traianus (Trajan). Becomes governor of Upper Germany. 96 AD Saint Clement of Rome. "First Epistle to the Corinthians". c. 96 AD Assassination of the greatly despised emperor Domitian (b.51-d.96) by a palace conspiracy. Sept. 18, 96 AD End of the Flavian Dynasty of Rome. Reign of the Roman Emperor Nerva (Marcus Cocceius Nerva). 96-98 AD Nerva (age 60) begins what is called the dynasty of the Antonines. "The Age of the Antonines". These are the Roman emperors Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. 96-180 AD Saint Polycarp (c.69-c.155) Consecrated Bishop of Smyrna by St. John the Apostle. 96 AD Nerva adopts the Roman general Trajan as his successor. 97 AD Martyrdom of St. Timothy. 97 AD St. Timothy is stoned to death in Ephesus, when he opposes the pagan festival of Katagogian which is held in honor of Diana. Frontinus (Sextus Julius Frontinus), c.40-103. “De Aquaeductus”. This is a two volume work on Roman aqueducts summarizing the major advances in their construction since ancient times. 97 AD Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Traianus), the general commanding in lower Germania is made Emperor of Rome. 98 AD Trajan is the first Roman Emperor of non-Italian (provincial) stock. Reign of Roman Emperor Trajan. 98-117 AD Third or Trajan Persecution of Christians. 98-117 AD Trajan continues the executions throughout the Roman Empire of the followers of Jesus Christ. Martyrdom of St. Parmenas at Philippi, Macedonia. 98 AD Killed during the persecution of the Christians under Emperor Trajan. St. Parmenas was one of the converts from Judaism to Christianity. Founding of Colonia Nervia Glevensis. 98 AD This will later become the city of Glouchester. Cornelius Tacitus (56-120 AD). Roman historian. Appearance of his first historical works. 98 AD In 98, Tacitus writes the following two historical works: “De Vita Iulii Agricolae”. ("The Life of Agricola"). “De origini et situ Germanorum” (“Germania”). A history of the early Germanic tribes. Describes the culture of the Germanic tribes. Menelaus of Alexandria. "Sphaerica". c.98 AD Deals with spherical triangles and their application to astronomy. Establishes the subject of Spherical Trigonometry. Funan Empire is established in Cambodia. c.100 AD Champa kingdom is founded in South Vietnam and parts of Cambodia. Martyrdom of St. Clement (Pope). 100 AD St. Clement is condemned to death while he is a prisoner. He is thrown into the sea with an anchor tied around his neck. Saint Evaristus. Fifth Pope. c.100-105 AD Originally from Asia Minor. Birth of St. Justin (100-165). c.100 AD Will open the first Christian school in Rome. The Romans briefly lose control of Scotland to the barbarians. 100 AD Beginning of the period of the Corinthian Heresy. c.100 AD The Corinthian Heresy denies the full humanity of Jesus Christ. Germanic migrations and invasions slowly begin. 100 AD For the next 375 years, the Goths, the Vandals, and the Huns will raid the Roman Empire. At first they will be successfully defeated. Dacian Wars (Rome vs Dacia). 101-106 AD Roman Emperor Trajan fights in the Dacian wars. 101-107 AD Dacia is now part of modern day Romania. The Roman Empire reaches its greatest geographical extent after Emperor Trajan later subdues Dacia, Armenia, and Upper Mesopotamia.101-107 AD Indo-Scythians invade North India. 102 AD Death of Saint John the Apostle at Ephesus. c. 104 AD Saint Alexander I. Sixth Pope. 105-115 AD Born in Rome. Tacitus (56-120 AD). Roman historian. “Historiae” (“The Histories”). 105 AD Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, and two in Galatia are destroyed by earthquakes. 105 AD Conquest of Dacia (Romania and Transylvania). Dacia is made a Roman province. 106 AD Trajan defeats Decebalus, King of Dacia, in battle. Petra, once the capital of the Nabataeans (a Semitic people), is taken over by the Romans. 106 AD Trajan forms the Roman province of Arabia Petraea (country south of Damascus to the head of the Red Sea). 106 AD It is inhabited by the Nabateans, a Semitic people. Trajan's Column, Rome. 106-113 AD Built to honor the conquest of Dacia by Roman Emperor Trajan. Includes a spiral frieze depicting the Dacian Wars in a continuous narrative. First mention of the term “Catholic Church” (literally means “Universal Church”) in an epistle written by St. Ignatius of Antioch. c. 107 AD Chosroes (Arsaces XXV). Parthian Empire. 107 AD Martyrdom of Saint Simeon Cleophas. 107 AD Simeon is the second Bishop of Jerusalem. During the persecution of the Christians under Roman Emperor Trajan, he is arrested, and after many tortures he is crucified. He is one hundred twenty years old at the time of his martyrdom. Martyrdom of St. Rufus and St. Zosimus. c. 107 They are both condemned to death for refusing to deny that Jesus Christ is God manifested in the flesh. They are thrown to wild beasts in the arena two days before the martyrdom of St. Ignatius of Antioch. Martyrdom of Saint Ignatius of Antioch. Dec. 19, 107 AD He is often surnamed Theophorus. He is sent in chains to Rome and thrown to the wild beasts. St. Ignatius was the first writer to use the expression "the Catholic Church". The Greek word Catolica means “general or universal”. An ambassador is sent from India to Rome. He is received by Roman Emperor Trajan. 107 AD Trajan. Roman Emperor. Constructs the Via Traiana at his own personal expense. The road connects Benevento to Brundisium (modern Brindisi). 107 AD A massive Roman aqueduct is built at Segovia, Spain. 110 AD St. Polycarp (ca.69-c.155). “Letter to the Philippians”. c.110 AD The Roman Empire now has over 48,000 miles of roads. 110 AD Trajan sends Pliny the Younger to be governor (legatus Augusti) of Bithynia (northwest Asia Minor). 111 AD Forum of Trajan, Rome. c.112 AD Designed by Apollodorus of Damascus. Trajan’s Forum is a masterpiece of axial planning. Proconsul Pliny the Younger reorganizes Bithynia. 112 AD Chosroes, King of Parthia, installs a puppet king in Armenia in defiance of Rome. 112 AD Martyrdom of St. Alexander (Pope Alexander I). 113 AD He is tortured, burned and then beheaded on the Via Nomentana, Rome. Renewal of the Parthian War. 113-116 AD Begun during the reign of Roman Emperor Trajan. Emperor Trajan annexes Armenia to the Roman Empire. 114 AD Destruction of the important city of Antioch, Syria by an earthquake.115 AD Unknown number of thousands die. The Jews in Egypt, North Africa, Palestine, and Cyprus rebel against the rule of the Roman Empire. 115-116 AD The Jewish revolts are crushed with great severity by Trajan. Trajan captures Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthian Empire. 115 AD Roman Emperor Trajan makes Mesopotamia a Roman province. 115 AD Emperor Trajan. Makes the Tigris River the eastern boundary of the Roman Empire. 115 AD Saint Sixtus I. Seventh Pope. c. 116-125 AD Birthplace: Rome. Emperor Trajan makes Assyria a Roman Province. 116 AD Marches to the Persian Gulf to conquer Parthia. Rome is victorious in the war with the Parthians. 116 AD Trajan makes Armenia a Roman province. Death of Trajan in Cilicia. He is 63 years old. 117 AD Hadrian (Publius Aelius Hadrianus), legate of Syria. 117 AD Reign of the Roman Emperor Hadrian (Trajan’s cousin). 117-138 AD Hadrian abandons the lands east of the Euphrates River, that is, the provinces of Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. 117 AD Hadrian makes the Euphrates River the new eastern boundary of the Roman Empire. Chosroes (Arsaces XXV) is restored in Parthia. 117 AD Tacitus. Roman historian. “The Annals”. 117 AD Roman Emperor Hadrian. Fourth Persecution of the Christians under Hadrian. 117-138 AD The Pantheon (ordered by Hadrian). 118 AD Construction of the Pantheon at Rome begins (will be finished 124 AD). This was the largest domed structure in the world. It was built on the site of an older structure. Population of Rome exceeds one million people. 118 AD It is the largest city in the world. Martyrdom of St. Eustace (also known as Eustachius). c.118 AD Martyrdom of St. Dionysius (Denis) at Montmartre. Oct. 9, 119 AD Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy). Alexandrian astronomer and geographer. Performs experiments on the refraction of light. c.120 AD Tarfon. Jewish rabbi. Demands the burning of all of the books of what we now call the “New Testament”. 120 AD Vologeses II (Arsaces XXVI). Parthian Empire. 121 AD Suetonius. “The Lives of the Caesars”. 121 AD Hadrian. Roman Emperor. Visits Britain (Britannia). 122 AD Hadrian. Roman Emperor. Begins construction of a 75 mile long wall across Britain named after him (Hadrian’s Wall) from Tyne to Solway between northern England and Caledonia (Scotland). Completed c. 127 AD. 122 AD Built to protect Romans from attacks by tribes from the north (Scotland). The wall is about 10 feet thick and 15 feet high. Hadrian leads an expedition against the Berbers who have been raiding Roman cities in Roman Mauretania. 123 AD Completion of the Pantheon in Rome. 124 AD “The Epistle to Diognetus”. c.124 AD Written by an unknown author. Nagarjuna. Exponent of Buddhism in India. c. 125 AD Saint Telesphorus. Eighth Pope. c. 125-136 AD Birthplace: Greece. Spread of Gnosticism (the Gnostic Heresy). c. 125 AD North Africa is devastated by plague and famine. 125 AD “Shepherd of Hermas”. Written in Rome. c. 125 AD Earthquake. Nicomedia, Asia Minor. 126 AD Caesarea and Nicea are destroyed. Conversion of the philosopher Justin Martyr from paganism to Christianity. Justin had been born of a pagan Greek family in Samaria. c. 130 AD He had previously practiced in turn Stoicism, Aristotelianism, Pythagoreanism, and Platonism. Emperor Hadrian visits Egypt. New capital city is begun at Antinopolis. 130 AD Hadrian standardizes Roman Law throughout the Roman Empire. 131 AD The Jews in Jerusalem are indignant at the building of a temple to Jupter on the site of their Temple. 132 AD The Jews establish a new Jewish religious center at Jamnia. 132-135 AD Second Jewish Revolt. 132-135 AD Roman influence in Jerusalem provokes the revolt of the Jews. The Jewish Revolt is led by Simon Bar Kocheba and Rabbi Akiba Ben-Joseph (40-135). The Jews temporarily capture Jerusalem and set up an independent state of Israel. This is the Second Jewish Revolt (132-135 AD). Julius Severus, the Governor of Roman Britain, is sent to Palestine in order to crush the second revolt of the Jews. 133 AD After three years, Hadrian suppresses the second Jewish revolt. 135 AD Simon Bar Kocheba and Rabbi Akiba Ben-Joseph are both killed. Marks the end of the Jewish nation. Depopulation of Judaea. Hadrian converts Jerusalem to Aelia Capitolina. Judea is renamed Syria Palestina (Provincia Syria Palaestina). The Romans forbid any Jew to live in or to even enter into the city of Jerusalem. Jews are forced abroad. Final Diaspora (dispersion) of the Jews. Martyrdom of St. Telesphorus (Eighth Pope). During the reign of Roman Emperor Hadrian. 136 AD Emperor Hadrian adopts Antonius Pius as his successor. 138 AD St. Hyginus. Ninth Pope. 136-140 AD Birthplace: Greece. Death of Hadrian. 138 AD He is buried in the monumental circular tomb (the Mausoleum Hadriani, Castel Sant’Angelo). Reign of Roman Emperor Antonius Pius. 138-161 AD The Indo-Scythian invaders destroy the last traces of Hellenic (Greek) rule in Northern India. Greek rule had begun during the time of Alexander the Great (d.323 BC). c.138 AD The Goths migrate southwards. 140 AD Construction of a Roman theater at Verulamium (later will be called St. Albans), England. 140 AD Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus). c.100-c.170. Greek mathematician, astronomer, and geographer at Alexandria. “Megale Syntaxis tes astronomias”. Arabic: “Almagest”. Completed. c.140 AD Produces the “Almagest”, his great synthesis of current astronomical knowledge, which provided an early system of celestial mechanics. Antoninus Pius. Roman Emperor. Orders the building of the Antonine Wall against the Picts and the Caledonians. Built from Forth to Clyde (140-143). 140 AD Saint Pius I. Tenth Pope. c. 140-155 AD Birthplace: Venetia. During his pontificate, he opposes Valentinianism and Gnosticism. He will also excommunicate Marcian and condemn Marcionism (144). Roman general Quintus Lollius Urbinus crushes another revolt against Roman rule in northern Britannia. 143 AD Competes building the Antonine Wall from the Forth to Clyde rivers. Marcion of Sinope comes from Asia Minor to Rome. 144 AD Rise of the Marcionite Heresy (Marcionism). Marcion denies the Incarnation and the Resurrection. Marcion concludes that there must be two gods, a lower Demiurge who created the universe (i.e. the God of Judaism), and the supreme God made known for the first time by Jesus Christ. Marcion rejects the oneness of the indivisible Trinity. His dualism causes him to reject the divine origin of the Old Testament. Pope Pius I excommunicates Marcion (Marcionism). 144 AD Vologeses III (Arsaces XXVII). Parthian Empire. Renewal of war between Parthia and the Roman Empire. 149 AD Celsus. Platonic philosopher. “The Word of Truth”. 150 AD Anti-Christian treatise in which he rejects the oneness of God the Father and God the Son. Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus). Greek. “Geographia”. Writings on geography. Completed. 150 AD Mostly based on the travels of the Roman legions throughout the known world. Ptolemy (c.100-c.170). Greek. Discovers many geometrical results with applications to astronomy. c. 150 AD Goths migrate to the Black Sea. 150 AD Battle of Lyons. 151 AD Albinus revolts in Britannia. He proclaims himself to be Roman Emperor. He is killed in the Battle of Lyons. Uprising against Roman rule in Roman Egypt. 153 AD St. Justin Martyr. Publishes his “First Apology” for the Christians. c. 154 AD Saint Anicetus. Eleventh Pope. 155-166 AD A Syrian from Emessa. Anicetus actively opposes Marcionism (the Marcion Heresy), and Gnosticism (the Gnostic Heresy). Rome fights an inconclusive war with Vologesus of Parthia. 155 AD Martyrdom of St. Polycarp of Smyrna (c. 69-155). February 23, 155 AD Polycarp, a Bishop, refuses to sacrifice to the genius of the Emperor. He refuses to deny the Lord Jesus Christ. He is speared to death. St. Polycarp of Smyrna had been a disciple of St. John the Apostle. Appearance of the heresiarch Montanus in Ardaban (Mysia). 156 AD Marks the appearance of Montanism, a heresy originating in Phrygia. Named after the founder (heresiarch) Montanus. Earthquake destroys the cities of Pontius and Macedonia, Asia Minor. Thousands die. 157 AD Birth of Tertullian. c. 160 AD Stoicism is now a dominant philosophy in Rome. c. 160 AD Famine and starvation throughout England. 160 AD Number of thousands of deaths is unknown. Arrival of Valentinian at Rome. 160 AD Valentinian Ptolemaeus. Letter written to a catechumen named Flora. c.160 AD Valentinian Heresy. Galen of Pergamum. Greek physician. First to use the pulse rate as an indicator of health and sickness. c.160 AD Buddhism splits into two schools. c.160 AD Mahayana (the Great Vehicle) and Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle). Death of Roman Emperor Antonius Pius. 161 AD He is succeeded by his nephew Marcus Aurelius who shares power with Lucius Aurelius Verus. Reign of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antonius. 161-180 AD During his rule of the Roman Empire, Marcus Aurelius is forced to wage numerous wars through a series of disastrous years of floods, failing harvests, famine, barbarian raids, internal revolts, universal pestilence, disease, extreme cold weather and heat, and alternating heavy rains and drought. Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. Bronze. c. 161-180 AD Parthian Wars. 162-165 AD Lucius Aurelius Verus is successful in the war against the Parthians. Verus’ troops make Mesopotamia a Roman Province and gain control of Armenia. Outbreak of Great Plague in the Roman Empire. 164 AD Spreads from the Middle East to the West. Begins and lasts until the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 AD). Plague also devastates Asia Minor. Fifth or Aurelian Persecution of the Christians. 165-180 AD Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius launches one of the bitterest of all attacks against the followers of Jesus Christ. Avidius Cassius, Governor of Syria. Sacks Seleucia and Ctesiphon. 165 AD Martyrdom of St. Justin the Martyr (c.100-165). 165 AD Under Marcus Aurelius, he is scourged and beheaded for refusing to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to the pagan gods of Rome. Martyrdom of Saint Felicitas at Rome. c. 165 AD Saint Soterus (St. Soter). Twelfth Pope. 166-174 AD Birthplace: Campania, Italy. Opposes the Montanist Heresy (Montanism). Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Sends gifts to Huan Ti, the Emperor of China. 166 AD The Marcomanni, tribesmen from what is now Bohemia, with their allies, cross the Danube River and invade the Roman Empire. 166 AD They penetrate as far as Aquileia. Beginning of attempted invasions of the Empire by barbarian hoards. Battle of Aquileia. 166 AD In 166 three Germanic tribes swarm across the Alps in northeastern Italy. These are the Marcomanni tribesmen from Bohemia, the Quadi from Moravia, and the Iazyges of Hungary. They attack Aquileia at the head of the Adriatic Sea. Marcus Aurelius throws back the invaders. The following year (167) Marcus Aurelius raises the siege of Aquileia. First Marcomanni War. 167-175 AD (Wars of the Marcomanni and Quadi). Outbreak of fierce persecution of the Christians in Asia Minor. 167 AD Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Aurelius Verus, his co-emperor, conquer the Marcomanni, that are living to the north of the Danube River but occupying north western Italy for several years. 168 AD Plague. Roman Empire. 169 AD Second of a series of great plagues. Number of deaths is unknown. Death of Lucius Aurelius Verus (age 39). Co-emperor. 169 AD Marcus Aurelius is left to rule alone. The Marcomanni, Germanic barbarians, break the peace that had been concluded the previous year with the Roman Empire. The Marcomanni will soon be annihilated by a Roman army. Pausanias of Magnesia. Greek historian. “Periegesis”. Ten volumes. c. 170 AD A guide through Greece, including a history of Greek art. Ptolemy (c.100-c.170). Greek. Draws 26 maps of various countries of the known world. c.170 AD The Marcomanni, Germanic barbarians, are pushed back from Italy during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. 171 AD Marcus Aurelius. Stoic philosopher. During his campaigns against the Marcomanni, Marcus Aurelius, writes his work, the “Meditations,” which he wrote in Greek. 171 AD The “Meditations” is a classic of pagan philosophy written during the early Christian era. Marcus Aurelius. Stoic philosopher. “Meditations”. Written in Greek. c. 171 AD Marcus Aurelius. Makes peace with the Marcomanni tribes. He allows them to settle the plague ravaged Roman territories. 172 AD Marcus Aurelius defeats the Quadi tribe. 173 AD Saint Eleutherius (or Eleuterius, Greek). Thirteenth Pope. 174-189 AD Avidius Cassius, governor of Syria, revolts. 175 AD His army is crushed. Marcus Aurelius. Returns back to the city of Rome after his successful military campaign north of the Alps. 176 AD Catechetical School of Alexandria is founded. c. 176 AD First headmaster is Pantaenus, an Athenian Stoic converted to Christianity. Later his student Clement will succeed him (from 190-203 AD). The school teaches subjects such as Theology, Philosophy, the Old Testament, the New Testament, Logic, Mathematics, Exegesis, Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Persecution of Christians under Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius begins once again throughout the Roman Empire. 177 AD The fish becomes a secret symbol of Christianity. c. 177 AD Christianity is first introduced to Celtic leaders at Lyons. 177 AD The Martyrs of Lyons. 177 AD St. Pothinus (also Photinus), the bishop of Lyons, and forty seven other Christians are stoned, tortured to incredible extremes, and then put to death during the persecution of Marcus Aurelius. Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius makes his son Commodus co-emperor of the Roman Empire. 177 AD Martyrdom of Saint Cecilia. 177 AD Cecilia is given the choice of sacrificing to heathen gods or of being killed. She refuses to reject the indivisible Trinity, and is killed. Second Marcomanni War. 178-180 AD The Marcomanni and their allies renew their war with Roman Empire. St. Irenaeus (c.125-c. 203). Returns to Lyons and becomes Bishop of Lyons. Fiercely opposes the Gnostic Heresy which he will refute in a five book treatise, “Adversus Omnes Haereses” (c.189). Death of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (age 58) at Vindobona (modern day Vienna). 180 AD Nearly a century of war and disorder begins in the Roman Empire. 180 AD Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, becomes sole Roman Emperor. Commodus rules 180-192 AD. 180 AD Canon of the sacred writings of Christianity. c. 180 AD Inclusion of the Old Testament and the New Testament. Revived Carthage in North Africa (previously destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC) begins to flourish as a major Roman city. c. 180 AD Column of Marcus Aurelius. c. 180-196 AD Building of a Triumphal Column at Rome depicting scenes from the Marcomanni War. Commodus. Roman emperor. Continuation of murder of Christians throughout the Roman Empire.180 AD First Christians are martyred at Scillium (north Africa). 180 AD The Acts of the Scillitan Saints. 180 AD These are the earliest surviving writings concerning Christian martyrs in Roman Africa. These writings are dated July 17, 180 AD. Theophilus and Tatian. c. 180 AD Arrival of Clement in Alexandria. c. 180 AD The Antonine Wall in Roman Britain is breached. 180 AD The Romans, defeated in Scotland, fall back on Hadrian’s Wall. After the death of Marcus Aurelius (180), the Romans under Commodus give up the war against the Marcomanni in the north. 181 AD Birth of Origen (c.183-254) at Alexandria. c. 183 AD Assassination attempt on Roman Emperor Commodus. c. 183 AD Martyrdom of Saint Apollonius the Apologist. c. 185 AD A Roman senator, after converting from paganism to Christianity, he refuses to renounce the doctrine that Jesus Christ is God manifested in the flesh. He is sentenced to death and then beheaded. St. Demetrius (126-231). Made Bishop of Alexandria, Egypt. 188 AD St. Irenaeus of Lyons. “Adversus Omnes Haereses”. c. 189 AD Plague. Roman Empire. 189 AD This is the third of a series of terrible plagues. Kills as many as 200 persons a day in Rome. Saint Victor I. 14th Pope. First Latin Pope. 189-199 AD Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clement). Head of the Catechetical School of Alexandria. 190 AD Clement succeeded upon the death of Pantaenus. Clement will be head from 190 until 203. Theodotus (from Constantinople), the originator of the heresy of “dynamic monarchianism”, brings his false doctrines to Rome. Theodotus teaches that until His Baptism, Jesus Christ lived the life of a regular person, with the difference that He was supremely virtuous. The Holy Spirit, then descended upon Him, and from that moment, He worked miracles, without however becoming divine. Theodotus will be excommunicated by Pope St. Victor I. Galen. Greek physician. Extracts plant juices for medicinal purposes. c. 190 AD Vologeses IV (Arsaces XXVIII). Parthian Empire. 191 AD Martyrdom of St. Pellegrino (Peregrine) the Martyr under the rule of Roman Emperor Commodus. August 25, 192 AD Roman Emperor Commodus finally goes insane. 192 AD Murder of Commodus. 192 AD Commodus' favorite mistress Marcia and his chamberlain Eclectus discover their names on an execution list. They hire a wrestler to strangle Commodus to death. End of the Antonine line of Roman Emperors. Publius Pertinax is chosen against his will by the Roman Senate to succeed Commodus as Roman Emperor. 193 AD Murder of Roman Emperor Pertinax by the Praetorian Guard who choose Didius Julian instead. 193 AD Provincial Roman armies in Pannonia, Britain, and Syria back rival claimants to imperial power. Septimius Severus, governor of Pannonia (now mostly Hungary) enters Rome in full battle array and ends the reign of Didius Julian after two months. 193 AD Septimius Severus has Didius Julianus put to death. Septimus Severus is Roman Emperor. 193-211 AD Caesar Severus is a follower of Serapis, an Egyptian god of the dead. Continued persecution of the Christians under Septimus Severus. Conversion of Quintus Tertullian to Christianity. 193 AD Civil Wars of the Roman Empire. 194-197 AD Septimius Severus defeats his rival, Pescennius Niger, at Issus (now in Asia Minor), killing him. 194 AD Septimus Severus sacks Byzantium. 196 AD Barbarians overrun northern Britain, and damage Hadrian’s Wall. 196 AD Tertullian. “Apology”. c.197 AD Septimus Albinus, governor of Britain, and claimant to the imperial throne, proclaims himself Emperor in Britain. 197 AD Septimus Severus. Defeats and kills his other rival Septimus Albinus, the governor of Britain, at the Battle of Lyon (Lugdunum). 197 AD Septimus Severus. Crushes a Parthian rebellion against Roman rule. 198 AD Septimus Severus reaches Ctesiphon, conquers and reorganizes the Roman province of Mesopotamia. The primacy of the Bishop of Rome in the Christian Church is re-affirmed under Pope Victor I (189-199 AD). 199 AD Saint Zephyrinus. 15th Pope. 199-217 AD Birthplace: Rome. Defends the apostolic doctrine of the Oneness of God and the Indivisible Trinity of God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. Sixth persecution of Christians under Roman Emperor Septimus Severus. His objective is to establish one common religion throughout the Roman Empire. c.199-211 AD Clement and Origen, Christian theologians, are teaching in Alexandria, Egypt. c.200-230 AD Formation of the Neo-Hebrew language. c. 200 AD First appearance of the Franks in Europe. c. 200 AD The name of Franks (or free men) is given to a military confederacy of the lower Rhine and the Weser. The Goths enter into Dacia, and after crossing the Danube River, attack the Roman provinces. 200 AD Beginning of the invasion of Afghanistan by the Huns. 200-240 AD Period of Neo-Platonism, the last of the Greek philosophies. c. 200 AD Jingu, the Japanese Empress, sends a fleet to invade Korea. 200 AD At the sight of the Japanese ships, the Korean people surrender immediately and offer tribute. Oldest Mayan temples in Central America. c. 200 AD Roman Emperor Septimus Severus issues an edict against conversion from any religion to Christianity. Persecutions continue. 202 AD Martyrdom of St. Leonides of Alexandria. He is beheaded. 202 AD Martyrdom of St. Potamiana. 202 AD She is lowered feet first into a cauldron of boiling pitch. Martyrdom of St. Perpetua and St. Felicitas (at Carthage). March 7, 203 AD They are sworded to death for refusing to deny that Jesus Christ is God. They have four companions with them who are also martyred. They are Saturus, Secundulus, Saturninus, and Revocatus. Martyrdom of St. Irenaeus (125-203). Martyred at Lyons, during the persecution of the Christians under the rule of Roman Emperor Septimus Severus. c. 203 AD Origen. Takes charge of the Catechetical School at Alexandria, Egypt. 203 AD Arch of Septimus Severus is raised in Rome. 203 AD British revolt against Roman rule in Britannia. 205 AD Plotinus (205-270 AD) is born. Greek speaking Egyptian. 205 AD Will write “The Enneads”. Septimus Severus. Defeats Vologeses IV (Arsaces XXVIII) of the Parthian Empire. 207 AD Septimus Severus sacks the chief cities of the Parthian Empire. Tertullian. Undergoes a radical transformation and joins the Montanists. c. 207 AD Septemus Severus. Goes to Britannia to defeat the British revolt. 208 AD Roman Emperor Septimus Severus campaigns in Britannia against the revolt of the Caledonians (Scots). 208-211 AD Septimus Severus. Repairs Hadrian’s Wall that had been built across Britannia. 208 AD The birth of Cyprian. c.210 AD Suppression of the British revolt against the Romans. 211 AD Emperor Septimus Severus dies at Eboracum (modern day York). 211 AD Septimus Severus is succeeded by his sons Augustus (known as Caracalla) and Geta. Caracalla (Antoninus Bassianus), the eldest son of Septimus Severus, murders Geta, his brother and co-ruler, and most of the latter’s followers. Caracalla is Roman Emperor. 212 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Caracalla. 212-217 AD Caracalla builds the immense Baths of Caracalla at Rome. 212-216 AD Edict of Caracalla. “Civis Romanus Sum”. 212 AD Caracalla gives Roman citizenship to every freeborn subject in the Roman Empire (all provincials). Caracalla fends off the Alemanni along the Rhine River in Southern Germany and the Goths farther east. 214 AD Death of St. Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clement). c.215 AD St. Clement is one of the Greek Fathers of the Church. Birth of Mani (215-275), founder of the Manichaeans (Manichaenism), at Mardinu, Babylonia. 215 AD Caracalla annexes Armenia. 216 AD Artabanus V (Arsaces XXX), is the last Arsacidaen king of the Parthian Empire. 216-226 AD After struggles with the Parthians along the Euphrates River, Roman Emperor Caracalla is murdered. 217 AD Saint Callistus I (also written St. Callixtus I). 16th Pope. Birthplace: Rome. 217-222 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Mauretanian Macrinus (age 53). 217-218 AD M. Opilius Macrinus is beheaded in a mutiny near Antioch. 218 AD Proclamation of Emperor Heliogabalus (Elagabalus) of Emesa, Caracalla’s nephew, by the army. 218 AD Elagabalus is a priest of the Syrian Sun god. Elagabalus (Heliogabalus), M. Aurelius Antoninus, first cousin of Caracalla, is Roman Emperor. 218-222 AD His mother, Julia Soaemias Bassiana, actually rules. Introduction of the ancient Syrian cult of Baal at Rome. 218 AD The Goths invade the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. c. 220 AD The Goths threaten the Balkans and Asia Minor. Until 238 AD. End of the Han Dynasty in China. 220 AD Period of the Three Kingdoms in China (until 265 AD). 220 AD China is divided into three competing dynasties. The three kingdoms are the Shu, the Wu, and the Wei. China will be invaded for the next four hundred years. Emperor Elagabalus and his mother Julia Soaemias Bassiana are put to death for their atrocities by the Roman Praetorian guards. 222 AD He is succeeded by his adopted son, the 14 year old Bassianus, who takes the name Alexander Severus. Emperor Alexander Severus rules the Roman Empire. 222-235 AD Great spread of oriental paganism, from the east, especially the ancient Syrian cult of Baal. Saint Urban I. 17th Pope. 222-230 AD Birthplace: Rome. Battle of Hormizdegan (also called Hormuz). 226 AD The Parthians are crushed. Artabanus V, the last Arsacid king of Parthia is killed. End of the Parthian Empire (Arsacids). 226 AD The Persian rebel Ardashir I (Artaxerxes) overthrows the Parthian Empire. Ardashir I founds the New Persian Empire under Sassanid (Sassanian) Dynasty (Sassanid Empire). Makes Zoroastrianism the official religion of the new empire. The Sassanian Empire will rule Persia until it is destroyed by the moslems in 641. New Persian Empire of the Sassanids (the Sassanian Empire). 226-641 AD Reign of Artaxerxes (Ardashir I) of the New Persian Sassanian (Sassanid) Empire. 226-240 AD Sassanian-Roman War. 229-232 AD Ardashir I of the Sassanian Empire wars with the Roman Empire and seizes Armenia after the death of its king Chosroes. Death of St. Urban (Pope Urban I) at Rome. May 23, 230 AD Saint Pontianus (St. Pontian). 18th Pope. 230-235 AD Birthplace: Rome. Christian catacomb paintings are at their height. c. 230 AD Emperor Sujin, the first known ruler of Japan. 230 AD St. Pontian (d. 236). Pope. Holds a synod at Rome. 230-235 AD Condemnation of Origenism at Alexandria, Egypt. 231-232 AD Sassanian-Roman War establishes the Sassanian Empire as the major power in the east. 232 AD The Romans expel Ardashir I of the Sassanian Empire from Mesopotamia and Cappadocia in Asia Minor. 232 AD St. Pontian (Pope). Resigns his office as Pope while he is a prisoner at Sardinia. 235 AD St. Antherus (Anterus). 19th Pope. 235-236 AD Birthplace: Greece. Roman Emperor Alexander Severus. Purchases peace from the Alamanni tribes that are on the Rhine River boundary of the Roman Empire. 235 AD Murder of Emperor Alexander Severus by his own troops on the Rhine River in an army meeting. 235 AD Begins a period of military chaos. Rome’s Rhine legions elect Maximinus (Thrax) as the next Roman Emperor. 235 AD Maximinus is a Thracian. Reign of Roman Emperor Caius Julius Verus Maximinus (the Thracian). He is 62 years old. 235-238 AD Seventh persecution of the followers of Jesus Christ under Roman Emperor Maximin Thrax. 235-238 AD Martyrdom of St. Hippolytus. 235 AD Hippolytus and twenty other Christians of his household are beaten to death with leaden whips. Martyrdom of St. Pontian (Pope 230-235). 236 AD He is beaten to death in the mines at Sardinia. Martyrdom of St. Antherus (19th Pope). January 3, 236 AD St. Fabian. 20th Pope. 236-250 AD Birthplace: Rome. Succeeds St. Antherus. A Roman, he is elected Pope on January 10, 236. Martyrdom of St. Barbara of Nicomedia (Bythnia, Asia Minor). She refuses to deny the oneness of the indivisible Trinity. December 4, 237 AD St. Gregory Thaumaturgus (c. 213-268). He is elected to be the Bishop of Neocaesarea by the seventeen Christians that are in the city. c. 238 AD The Goths begin their invasion of the Eastern part of the Roman Empire. 238 AD The Roman provinces in north Africa reject Maximinus the Thracian, and elect M. Antonius Gordianus, their proconsul. 238 AD Gordianus is 80 years old and a descendant of Trajan. The supporters of Maximinus the Thracian besiege Gordianus at Carthage for one month. 238 AD Assassination of Emperor Maximinus the Thracian in his tent by his own troops. June 238 AD Maximinius is succeeded by M. Antonius Gordianus I. 238 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Antonius Gordianus I. 238 AD While at Carthage, and in his eightieth year, he strangles himself. Reign of Roman Emperor Gordianus II (son of Gordianus I). 238 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Pupienus Maximus. 238 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Balbinus (co-regent). 238 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Gordianus III. 238-244 AD Shapur I. Rules the Sassanian Empire (the new Persian Empire). 240-271 AD Council of Carthage. 240-250 AD The Franks invade Gaul. 240 AD Shapur I of the Neo-Persian Empire starts a war with the Roman Empire by invading Roman Mesopotamia. 241 AD First war between the Roman Empire and the Sassanian Empire (the new Persian Empire). 241-244 AD Manes (Persian). Founder of Manichaenism. Begins teaching Manichaenism in Persia. c. 242 AD Palace of Shapur (Sassanian). Ctesiphon. 242 AD Furius Timesitheus. Roman prefect. Drives out Persian forces from Antioch. 243 AD Gordianus III. Roman Emperor. Drives the Persian army across the Euphrates River. 244 AD The Romans defeat the Persians in Mesopotamia in the Battle of Resaena. Praetorian prefect, Marcus Philippus the Arabian, kills Emperor Gordian III and becomes Emperor of Rome. 244 AD Reign of the Roman Emperor Marcus Philippus of Arabia. 244-249 AD Anti-Christian emperor. Marcus Philippus (Arabian) makes peace with the Sassanian (Persian) Empire. 244 AD Conversion of Saint Cyprian (c. 200-258). c. 246 AD Cyprian’s full name is Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus. A pagan rhetorician, teacher, and lawyer, he is converted to Christianity by Caecilius, a Catholic priest. The Goths cross the Danube River in a great raid. 247 AD St. Dionysius the Great of Alexandria (d. 265). Elected Bishop of Alexandria (247-264). 247 AD Saint Cyprian (c.200-258). Elected Bishop of Carthage (248-258). 248 AD Rome celebrates the 1,000th anniversary of its founding. 248 AD Rome was founded in 753 BC. Martyrdom of Saint Cyriaca (also known as Dominica). 249 AD She refuses to deny the Divinity of Jesus Christ and is scourged to death. Martyrdom of St. Apollonia. 249 AD Martyred at Alexandria during the reign of Emperor Marcus Philippus. When Apollonia does not renounce Jesus Christ, she is tortured. Her teeth are knocked out, and she is burned to death in a fire. The following three others are martyred with her. St. Metras is first tortured and then stoned to death. St. Quinta is dragged through the streets and then is scourged to death. St. Serapion is thrown from the roof of his house by the rioting mob. Decius, Roman commander. Puts down an army revolt in Pannonia. 249 AD Roman troops proclaim Decius emperor. Marcus Phillipus advances to Verona to oppose Decius. 249 AD Marcus Philippus, the Arabian, is killed in battle by troops of the Roman general Decius. Decius becomes Roman Emperor. 249 AD Reign of Roman Emperor C. Messius Quintus Traianus Decius. He is of Illyrian origin. 249-251 AD Decian Persecution (249-251). January 20, 250 AD Eighth persecution of the Christians. Roman Emperor Decius orders the systematic general and indiscriminate persecution of all the followers of Jesus Christ (Christians). Roman Emperor Decius. Orders all provincial officials to require all persons in their domains to sacrifice to the Roman gods and to the genius of Caesar. 250 AD Martyrdom of Saint Mercurius. c. 250 AD During Emperor Decius’ persecution of the followers of Jesus Christ. He is first tortured and then beheaded for refusing Emperor Decius’ order to participate in the sacrifices to the pagan gods of the Roman Empire. Mercurius had just led a Roman army in a great victory against the barbarians that were attacking Rome. Birth of Saint Anthony of Egypt (250-356) at Koman, near Memphis, Egypt, near the Red Sea. 250 AD St. Fabian (Pope). St. Fabian sends out seven bishops from Rome into pagan Gaul. 250 AD St. Fabian sends St. Gatien to Tours, St. Trophimus to Arles, St. Paul to Narbonne, St. Saturnin to Toulouse, St. Denis (d. 258) to Paris, St. Austromoine to Clermont, and St. Martial to Limoges. Martyrdom of St. Fabian (Pope 237-250) in the early stages of the Decian persecution of the Christians. January 20, 250 AD Worship of the gods of Rome is made compulsory. 250 AD Bubonic Plague. Roman Empire. 250-265 AD In Rome alone, 5000 victims die each day. Many cities are completely depopulated. Diophantus of Alexandria. Greek mathematician. “Arithmetica”. Writes an early treatise on algebra. c.250AD Includes the first systematic use of algebraic symbols. Many problems involve solutions in integers only (Diophantine Equations). Martyrdom of St. Miniato (Armenian: Minias). October 25, 250 AD Brought before Emperor Decius (rules 249-251) at Florence, Italy. He refuses to reject Christ, is tortured, and then beheaded. Defeat of the Goths in Thrace. 251 AD Roman Emperor Decius and his son are defeated and killed fighting the Goths at Silistria in the swamps of the Dobrudja (Dacia). 251 AD General Gallus, Decius’ successor, makes peace with the Goths. 251 AD Reign of Emperor Gallus and coemperor Hostilianus, son of Decius.251 AD Gallus kills his coemperor, son of Decius, and becomes sole Emperor of the Roman Empire. Gallus rules 251-253. Saint Cornelius. 21st Pope. 251-253 AD Birthplace: Rome. The Goths, under their king Ostrogotha, for the first time force their way into the Roman Empire by crossing the Danube River. 251 AD Gothic invasion of the Roman Empire. 251-269 AD St. Cyprian (c. 200-258). Bishop of Carthage. Convenes a council at Carthage. 251 AD It is at this council that Cyprian read his famous “De Unitate Ecclesiae”. Martyrdom of Saint Agatha at Catania, Sicily. February 5, 251 AD She is subjected to all forms of indignities and excruciating tortures. She is racked, they cut off her breasts, and then roll her over red hot coals until she is dead. Synod of Western Bishops in Rome. October 251 AD Condemns the teachings of Novatian (the Novatian Heresy) , and excommunicates him and all of his followers. Novatian teaches that after Baptism there can be no forgiveness of sins. Carthage is stricken by a terrible plague. 252-254 AD The Christians are blamed for the plague. Devastation of Pontus by the barbarian Goths. 252-254 AD The Franks, the Goths, and the Alemanni break through the borders of the Roman Empire. c. 252 AD Roman Emperor Trebonianus Gallus. Starts up the persecution of the Christians again. 253 AD Martyrdom of St. Cornelius (Pope) during the persecutions ordered by the pagan Roman Emperor Trebonianus Gallus. 253 AD Roman soldiers, campaigning along the Danube River, elect Marcus Aemilianus, the governor of Pannonia, as their Emperor. 253 AD Aemilianus marches on Rome to meet his opponent Trebonianus Gallus. Aemilianus defeats Trebonianus Gallus at Interamna Nahors (Umbria). Gallus flees to the north, but is killed by his own troops. 253 AD Saint Lucius I. 22nd Pope. 253-254 AD Birthplace: Rome. Reaffirms the condemnation of the Novatian Heresy (Novatianism) which refused the Sacraments to penitent “lapsi”. Marcus Aemilianus rules the Roman Empire. 253 AD Martyrdom of St. Messalina. January 19, 254 AD She refuses to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to the pagan gods. She is clubbed to death. Aemilianus is put to death after a reign of four months. 254 AD Publius Valerianus (Valerian), aged 60, commander in Germania, is elected Emperor by the Roman Senate and soldiers. 254 AD His son, Gallienus, is co-Emperor. Reign of Roman Emperor Valerian. 254-258 AD Valerian seeks to execute all Bishops, Priests, and Deacons throughout the Roman Empire. Saint Stephen I. 23rd Pope. 254-257 AD Birthplace: Rome. Martyrdom of St. Christophorus. July 25, 254 AD The plague which appeared two years before, now spreads through Egypt and across Europe. 255 AD St. Cyprian (c.200-258). Bishop of Carthage. “De Mortalitate”. 255 AD Valerian fails to stop the Franks, the Goths, and the Alemanni that are advancing into the Roman Empire. c. 256 AD The Visigoths and Ostrogoths invade the Black Sea area. 257 AD Death of Saint Stephen I (Pope). 257 AD Ninth or Valerian Persecution of Christians (257-258). Begins. 257 AD Roman Emperor Valerian orders all Christian worship to cease throughout the Roman Empire. Invasion of Roman Spain by the Franks. 257 AD Division of the Goths into Visigoths and Ostrogoths. 257 AD Saint Sixtus II. 24th Pope. 257-258 AD Birthplace: Greece. Edict of Persecution (Emperor Valerian). 258 AD Emperor Valerian, in an Imperial decree, orders that all Christian clergy and men of ranks Bishop, priests, and deacons should be degraded and lose their property. If, having been deprived of their possessions, they should still remain Christian, then they must be put to death. Continued murder of the followers of Jesus Christ. Invasion of Upper Italy by the Alemanni and the Suevi. 258 AD Second Persian War with Rome. 258-260 AD Shapur I of Persia. Advances as far as Cappadocia in Asia Minor. 258 AD Milan. 258 AD Invading Alemanni and Suevi are defeated at Milan. Roman rule is preserved in Northern Italy. Martyrdom of Saint Sixtus II. 24th Pope. August 6, 258 AD Saint Sixtus II is seized, condemned to death, and executed during Emperor Valerian’s persecution. Along with Sixtus II, six deacons of the Church are tortured and executed. Their names are Agapitus, Felicissimus, Januarius, Magnus, Stephen, and Vincent. Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence (Laurentius) in Rome. August 10, 258 AD During Emperor Valerian’s persecution of the Christians, St. Laurence is bound to a red-hot gridiron and roasted to death over a slow fire. Martyrdom of Saint Cyprian (c. 200-258), Bishop of Carthage. Cyprian persists in his refusal to sacrifice to the pagan gods of Rome. His crime is the refusal to worship Caesar, which is a sacrilege. He is beheaded. September 14, 258 AD Martyrdom of St. Denis (Greek: Dionysius). October 9, 258 AD He is beheaded near Paris. Shapur I, second Sassanid ruler (Persian ruler). Invades Mesopotamia. 258 AD Shapur I. Sassanian Empire. Takes Antioch. 258 AD Gallienus (son of Valerian and co-Emperor). Becomes sole Roman Emperor. 258 AD Reign of Gallienus: 258-268. Saint Dionysius. 25th Pope. 259-268 AD Defends (260) the doctrine of the three persons of the indivisible Trinity. Condemns the Sabellian Heresy (Sabellianism). Shapur I of the Neo-Persian Empire ravages Syria. 259 AD Martyrdom of Saint Fructuosus. 259 AD When Fructuosus refuses to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to the Roman gods, he is first tortured and then burned to death. Battle of Edessa. 260 AD (Part of the Persian Wars of the Roman Empire). The army of Valerian is destroyed at Edessa by Shapur I of Persia. Roman Emperor Valerian is captured in battle by Shapur I of Persia. It is believed that Valerian was flayed alive while he was in captivity. The Roman Empire comes under attack from the barbarian Vandals, Goths, Alemanni, Palmyrans, Berbers, and Franks in addition to the plague. 260 AD Seizure of Roman territory in the Near and Middle East by the Sassanian Empire (Persia). 260 AD Paul of Samosata, false bishop of Antioch in Syria, and heretic of the Church, denies the divinity of Jesus Christ. 260 AD He rejects the indivisible Trinity. He teaches that Christ was a regular person until the Holy Ghost descended upon him at his baptism (Adoptionism). St. Lucian. Founds the exegetical School of Antioch. c. 260 AD Rival Gothic Empire is established. 260 AD Death of Saint Felix of Nola. January 14, 260 AD St. Paul of Thebes becomes a hermit. c. 260 AD Roman Emperor Gallienus. Issues edict of toleration for Christians. 261 AD Edict will be rejected by the next emperor (268). Goths are in Macedonia and Asia Minor. 262 AD Sack of Ephesus. 262 AD Odenathus of Palmyra. Defeats the Sassanians (Sassanian Empire). 263 AD Seizes Syria and Mesopotamia for the Roman Empire. Drives the Persians back across the Euphrates River. Invasion of Gaul by the Franks. 263 AD Synod of Antioch. 264-265 AD Against Paul of Samosata, rejects the Sabellian Heresy, and rejects Tritheism (the Tritheistic Heresy). The Tritheistic Heresy maintains that the Trinity consists of three gods. Western (Ch’in) take over Wei state in China. 265 AD China begins to be reunited under the Western Tsin (Ch’in) Dynasty. Will continue until the White Huns begin to invade in 317. Condemnation of Sabellianism (the Sabellian Heresy). 266 AD Assasination of Odenaethus of Palmyra. 267 AD Septima Zenobia. Queen of Palmyra. Declares independence of Palmyra from Rome. 267 AD The Goths sweep through Asia Minor. 267 AD The Goths sack Athens, Corinth, and Sparta. 268 AD Synod of Antioch. 268 AD Formal condemnation of the heresy of Paul of Samosata. This is a continuation of the Synod of Antioch of 264-265. Roman Emperor Gallienus. Killed by his own troops at Mediolanum (Milan, Italy). 268 AD Claudius II. Raised to the throne of Roman Emperor (to 270) by his soldiers. 268 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Flavius Claudius II (b. 214-d.270). 268-270 AD He is a fierce enemy of Christianity. Defeat of the Alemanni by Emperor Claudius II. 268 AD Death of Saint Gregory Thaumaturgus (c.213-268). 268 AD He is also referred to as the Apostle of Pontus. Septima Zenobia. Queen of Palmyra. Conquers Syria, Mesopotamia, and parts of Egypt. 268-269 AD Martyrdom of Saint Valentine. Beheaded in Rome under Emperor Claudius Gothicus. Feb. 14, 269 AD Septima Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, captures Roman Egypt. 269 AD The great library of Alexandria is partly burned. Palmyra now has control of Rome’s grain supply. Battle of Naissus (Nish, Nis). 269 AD The Goths are crushed by Emperor Claudius Gothicus in the Battle of Naissus (Nis, Yugoslavia). During the Gothic invasion of 251-269 AD, the total number of war dead is over 120,000. Saint Felix I. 26th Pope. 269-274 AD Birthplace: Rome. Claudius II, Roman Emperor, dies of the plague. Jan. 270 AD Quintillius (Claudius’ brother) becomes Roman Emperor. 270 AD Quintillius is deserted by his troops and commits suicide. He is succeeded by Aurelianus (Aurelian). 270 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Aurelianus (b. 212-d.275). 270-275 AD Aurelian Persecution. Ninth persecution of Christians. 270-275 AD The Marcomanni advance from Bohemia across the Danube River. 270 AD Martyrdom of St. Prisca (also known as Priscilla). 270 AD After suffering great and dreadful tortures, she is killed with a sword. The Goths, in their progress southward, are joined by countless swarms of barbarians. They are able to overwhelm the countries they invade. c. 270 AD St. Helena (c.250-c.330). Meets Roman General Constantius Chlorus. c.270 They are married but will later divorce for political reasons. Manes (216-276) spreads his false doctrines in Persia. 270 AD Manes blends elements drawn from Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Gnosticism. He attempts to provide a universal religion for both the West and the East. Battle of Placentia (Piacenza). 271 AD In a fierce encounter, the Alemanni and their allies (the Jutungi, the Vandals, and others) are driven back by the Romans. Battle of Pavia. 271 AD Defeat of the Alemanni and their allies at Pavia (Ticinum) by Aurelian. Aurelian drives the Alemanni out of Italy. Aurelian Wall. 271-286 AD Great Wall around Rome is rebuilt by Roman Emperor Aurelian. These massive brick faced defenses will be used until 1870. The Romans drive the Goths from Illyricum and Thrace. 272 AD Romans defeat the Goths on the Danube River. St. Antony (Anthony) the Great (b.250-d.356). Retires into the desert in a tomb, in a cemetery near Koman, Egypt. He seeks to pursue the ascetic life. c. 272 AD Famine. England. 272 AD The famine is so terrible that people gnaw on the bark of trees. Subjugation and destruction of the rebel Queen Zenobia’s state of Palmyra (in modern Syria) by Aurelian. Zenobia is carried captive to Rome. 272 AD End of the brief rise of Palmyra. Aurelian recaptures Roman Egypt from the defeated Queen Zenobia of Palmyra. 273 AD Aurelianus sacks Palmyra in response to a revolt. 273 AD Aurelian concludes a peace with the Goths by sacrificing the province of Dacia to them and retreating to Danubian borders. 274 AD Emperor Aurelian (270-275). Offers the Christians to include Jesus Christ in the pantheon of Roman gods along with Mithra as a manifestation of the Unconquered Sun. 274 AD The Christians reject his offer. Aurelian now determines to root out Christianity from the Roman Empire. Recapture of Roman Gaul by Aurelian in a struggle at Châlons. c.274 AD Subjugation of the separate rival empire of Gaul by Aurelian. Aurelian. Roman Emperor. Assumption of the title “Dominus et Deum” (“Lord and God”). 274 AD Aurelian introduces the sun cult of Emesa (Sol invictus) which ties to the cult of the Roman Emperor. The Sun cult is made a state wide religion. Saint Eutychian (also called St. Eutychianus). 27th Pope. 275-283 AD Birthplace: Tuscany, Italy. Roman forces pull back from Transylvania and the Black Forest. 275 AD The Danube and Rhine River form the borders of the Roman Empire. Murder of Roman Emperor Aurelian by his own officers while they are on a march against Persia. 275 AD Aurelian is succeeded by the Roman senator, Tacitus (200-276). During his reign, Aurelian had attempted to establish a form of solar monotheism - the worship of the “Unconquered Sun”, as the official cult of the Roman Empire. Reign of Roman Emperor Tacitus (b.200-d.276). 275-276 AD Elected by the Roman Senate and soldiers. The Goths are in Pontus (in Asia Minor). c. 275 AD The Roman Emperor Tacitus crushes the Alani and the Goths that are in Asia Minor. 275 AD Roman Emperor Tacitus is killed by his own troops. 276 AD Florianus (brother of Tacitus) is made Roman Emperor. 276 AD Florianus is not recognized by the Roman Senate. Murder of Florianus. 276 AD Marcus Aurelius Probus becomes Roman Emperor. 276 AD Probus is the choice of the Roman army. Reign of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Probus. 276-282 AD Emperor Probus drives the Alemanni, the Franks, the Vandals, and the Burgundians from Roman Gaul. Probus strengthens the wall between the Rhine and Danube Rivers. Great Wall around Rome is built against barbarian attacks. 276 AD Mani (c.216-c.276) is seized, flayed alive, and beheaded in Persia. 276 AD Mani is the founder of Manichaeanism (the Manichaean Heresy) in Persia. Extraordinary naval expedition of the Thracian Franks in the Mediterranean and northern seas. 277 AD Birth of Constantine (b.c.280-d.337). c.280 AD Beginning of the gradual conversion of Armenia from paganism to Christianity. c.280 AD Beginning of the compilation of the Jewish Talmuds. c.280 AD Martyrdom of St. Trophimus (French: Trophime) of Arles. 280 AD He is the first Bishop of Arles. Western Ch’in conquer South China. 280 AD Sima Yao, leader of the Ch’in dynasty, attempts to unite China. Roman Emperor M. Aurelius Probus is killed by his own troops at Sirmium. Marcus Aurelius Carus becomes Roman Emperor. 282 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Carus. 282-283 AD Roman Emperor Carus. Subdues Mesopotamia, defeats the Persians, and takes Ctesiphon from the Persians under Varahran II. 283 AD Emperor Carus is struck and killed by lightning at Ctesiphon. 283 AD Carus is killed by lightning while on an expedition against the Parthians, as he is about to push his conquests across the Tigris River. Numerian, the elder son of Carus, becomes Roman Emperor. His brother Carinus is co-emperor. 283-284 AD Continued persecution of the Christians under Emperor Numerian. Saint Caius (also called St. Gaius). 28th Pope. 283-296 AD Birthplace: Dalmatia. Murder of Roman Emperor Numerian. 284 AD The eastern army of the Roman Empire proclaims Gaius Aurelius Diocletianus (Diocletian) Roman Emperor. 284 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Diocletian. 284-305 AD Carinus, the co-emperor of Numerian, is killed by his troops while fighting in what is now Moravia. 285 AD Marcus Aurelius Carausius, the commander of the Roman British fleet, proclaims himself independent Emperor of Britannia (286-293). 286 AD Martyrdom of Saint Tibertius. 286 AD Condemned to death by fire, and later beheaded. Diocletian partitions the Roman Empire into two administrative divisions, the Western empire and the Eastern empire. 286 AD Diocletian rules in the East. The general Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus (Maximian) rules in the West (Italy and north Africa) from Milan. The Alemanni, the Franks, and the Burgundians cross the Rhine River. 286-288 AD Revolt of Marcus Aurelius Carausius, commander of the Roman British fleet, who proclaimed himself the emperor of Roman Britannia in 286. 287-293 AD Martyrdom of Saint Maurice (Mauritius). c.287 AD Maurice is an officer of the Theban Legion of Emperor Maximian. He is killed for refusing to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to the Roman gods as ordered by the Emperor Diocletian. Martyrdom of St. Quintinus (Quentin). 287 AD He is first tortured and then beheaded. Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian. c.288 AD On the orders of Emperor Diocletian, he is beaten to death with clubs. Famine throughout the Roman province of Britannia. 288 AD Thousands perish. Amphitheater of Verona, Italy. 290 AD Construction begins. Death of St. Paul of Narbonne. c. 290 AD He is the first Bishop of Narbonne, Gaul (France). Conquest of the Burgundians by the Goths. 290 AD Diocletian. Roman Emperor. Appoints two Caesars named Constantius and Galerius. 292 AD Narses. Rules Persia. 292-301 AD Introduction of RomanTetrarchy. 293 AD Division of the Roman Empire into four parts. General Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus (Maximian) rules the western part (Italy and north Africa) from Milan. Diocletian rules the eastern part (Near and Middle East and Egypt) from Nicomedia (modern Izmut, Turkey). Constantius Chlorus rules Spain, Gaul, and Britannia (Trèves and York). Galerius rules Illyricum, Macedonia, and Greece (Sirmium). Birth of St. Athanasius the Great (b.c.293-d.373 AD). c.293 AD Carausius is defeated by a fellow rebel and rival general, Allectus, who claims Britain. Allectus rules 293-296. 293 AD Emperor Diocletian. Crushes a revolt against Roman rule in Roman Egypt. 294 AD Galerius defeats the Marcomanni. 295 AD Martyrdom of Saint Susanna. 295 AD She is beheaded after terrible tortures for refusing to reject Jesus Christ and worship pagan gods, and marry Emperor Diocletian’s son-in-law Maximian. Renewal of the war between Sassanian Persia and Rome. 296-297 AD Saint Marcellinus. 29th Pope. 296-304 AD Birthplace: Rome. Battle of Carrhae. 296 AD Narses of Persia routes Galerius (Diocletian’s Caesar, or deputy) near Carrhae, in northern Mesopotamia. Galerius. 297 AD Crushes Narses of Persia and recaptures Roman Mesopotamia. Martyrdom of St. Felician and St. Primus, his brother. c. 297 AD During the persecution of Christians by Emperor Diocletian and Maximian. They are imprisoned, scourged, tortured, and executed at Nomentum near Rome, when they refuse to deny the divinity of Jesus Christ. They refused to sacrifice to the Roman pagan gods. The Romans conquer Armenia from the Persian Sassanians. 297 AD Constantius (Diocletian’s caesar or deputy) ends the revolt of Allectus in the Roman province of Britannia. Britannia is recovered. 296 AD Conversion of Tiridates III, King of Armenia, from paganism to Christianity. 297 AD Introduction of Christianity into Armenia. c.298 AD Mainly as a result of the conversion of Tiridates III, King of Armenia. The immense Baths of Diocletian are built in Rome. c. 298-303 AD Constantius Chlorus (caesar of Diocletian). Crushes the Alemanni barbarians in Roman Gaul. 298 AD Martyrdom of St. Marcellus the Centurion. 298 AD Tortured and executed by sword for refusing to reject Jesus Christ. Beginning of the separate developments of the five Germanic dukedoms: Saxons, Franks, Alemanni, Thuringians, and Goths. c.300 AD The Lombards begin to move southward from the Lower Elbe. c.300 AD They will arrive in Italy in 568. Records of the earliest Christian religious plays. c.300 AD Height of Roman power and influence in the Roman province of Britannia. 300-350 Palace of Diocletian in Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik). Begun. c.300 AD More than ten thousand Christians are condemned to work on the baths of Diocletian in Rome. They are slaughtered by Diocletian’s orders. c.300 AD Funan (Cambodia) is ruled by an Indian Brahman, who introduces Hinduism, Indian legal code, and the alphabet of Central India. c. 300 AD Mayan civilization in southern Mexico enters a period during which its influence spreads into what are now called Guatemala and Honduras. This civilization will finally collapse c.900. c.300 AD Hormisdas II. Rules Sassanian Persia. 301-309 AD Diocletian at Nicomedia limits prices with an Edict of Maximum Prices. Price controls are introduced by Rome because of inflation. 301 AD Uprisings in the interior of the Roman Empire are suppressed. 301 AD Tiridates III, the King of Armenia makes Christianity the state religion. He is the first ruler to do this. 301 AD Death of St. Gatien (Gratianus or Gatianus) at Tours. Dec. 20, 301 AD He is the first Bishop of Tours, Gaul (France). Martyrdom of Saint Vitus at Lucania. c.303 AD Edict of the Emperor Diocletian against Christians. Feb. 23, 303 AD This is the tenth, last, and greatest persecution (lasts 10 years until 313) of the followers of Jesus Christ (the Diocletian Persecution). General murder and persecution of all Christians is proclaimed. Persecutions will continue until the Edict of Milan (in 313). Breaks out in Nicomedia. Under the Roman Emperor Diocletian, the Christians throughout the Roman Empire are captured, tortured and executed. 303-305 AD If they reject Jesus Christ they are allowed to live. Martyrdom of Saint Cyriacus. March 16, 303 AD Martyrdom of Saint George. He is beheaded at Lydda, Palestine. April 23, 303 AD Martyrdom of St. Erasmus (also known as St. Elmo), Bishop of Formiae, Campagna, Italy, during the Diocletian Persecution of the Christians throughout the Roman Empire. June 2, 303 AD Martyrdom of Saint Gorgonius. 303 AD An officer of Diocletian’s household, he is tortured to death for converting many of the Emperor’s household from paganism to Christianity. Martyrdom of Saint Januarius. September 19, 303 AD Saint Januarius is martyred near Pozzuoli during the Christian persecutions under the Roman Emperor Diocletian. Martyrdom of Saint Lucy (Lucia). 303 AD Martyrdom of St. Cosmas and St. Damian, twin brothers born in Arabia. They are tortured and then beheaded along with their three brothers, Anthimus, Euprepius, and Leontius. 303 AD Martyrdom of St. Macra. 303 AD She is exposed to the fire, her breasts are cut off, and then she is thrown upon a bed of red hot coals. Martyrdom of St. Cyrus (Italian: Ciro). Alexandrian. January 31, 303 AD He is tortured and then beheaded at Canopus, Egypt during the Diocletian Persecutions. Martyrdom of St. Devota. Corsican. 303 AD Martyrdom of St. Dorothea (Dorothy). c. 303 AD She refuses to sacrifice to the pagan gods during the reign of Diocletian. She is tortured first and then ordered executed. Martyrdom of St. Pantaleon (Panteleimon). July 27, 303 AD He is first tortured and then beheaded (under Maximian). Roman Emperor Diocletian. Proclaims Mithras (Mithraism) the protector of the Roman Empire. 304 AD Martyrdom of Saint Agnes. c. 304 AD During the Diocletian Persecution, she is first tortured and then beheaded for refusing to reject Jesus Christ. Martyrdom of St. Alban. 304 AD When he refuses to reject Jesus Christ and worship the pagan gods, he is first tortured and then beheaded. Martyrdom of St. Faustus, St. Januarius, and St. Martial. 304 AD During Diocletian’s persecution of Christians at what is now called Cordoba, Spain, all three are subjected to terrible tortures and then burned to death. They are sometimes called “the Three Crowns of Cordoba.” Martyrdom of St. Victor of Marseilles. 304 AD He refuses to reject Jesus Christ and offer sacrifice to Jupiter. Martyrdom of St. Florian. 304 AD He is first scourged and then thrown into the River Enns with a heavy rock tied around his neck. Martyrdom of St. Vincent of Saragossa. 304 AD Subjected to extended and fatal tortures by Dacian, the Roman governor of the Province. Martyrdom of St. Pollio. April 28, 304 AD He is burned while he is still alive. Martyrdom of St. Euphemia. September 16, 304 AD She refuses to worship Ares, one of the Greek pagan gods, at Chalcedon. She is first tortured and then bitten to death by a bear. Note: Compare the name Euphemia with the word blasphemia. Martyrdom of St. Felix. 304 AD He is first tortured and then beheaded at Rome for refusing to reject Jesus Christ. Martyrdom of St. Adrian. c. 304 AD He is first tortured and then put to death. Martyrdom of St. Eulalia of Mérida. c. 304 AD Martyrdom of St. Cassian. 304 AD Refuses to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to pagan gods. Martyrdom of St. Justina of Padua. 304 AD Diocletian retires to Split during his persecution of the Christians. 304 AD For nine years, Diocletian lives as a private citizen in Split, growing cabbages. He is in sorrow, frustration, and disappointment. Diocletian will die in 313. Death of Pope Marcellinus. 304 AD There is no Pope for four years until Marcellus I in 308. Final abdication of Diocletian in the East and Maximian in the West.305 AD End of the reign of Diocletian. Eighteen years of civil war will follow. The territories that are ruled by Diocletian and Maximian go to their deputies Augustus Constantius Chlorus (the father of the future Constantine the Great) in the West and Galerius in the East. 305 AD Constantius I Chlorus. Defeats the Picts and the Scots. 305 AD St. Antony the Great (250-356). Organizes at Fayum the colony of Christians that had grown around his retreat, into a loosely organized monastery with a rule. c.305 AD It is the first Christian monastery. He puts emphasis on recognizing and defeating Satan and his demons. Constantius I Chlorus (the father of the future Constantine the Great). Stops the Tenth Persecution of the followers of Jesus Christ. 305 AD Death of Maximian in Roman Britain at York. 306 AD Constantine leaves home to join his father, Constantius I Chlorus. 306 AD He covers the enormous distance through Bithynia, Thrace, Dacia, Italy, and Gaul. Constantine arrives at the English Channel just as his father is preparing to set out for Britain. Constantine accompanies his father Constantius I, who had easily conquered the Caledonians (Picts and Scots) but dies in York. July 25, 306 AD Immediately, Constantine is proclaimed at York, Augustus in his stead. The troops proclaim him Roman Emperor, and Galerius accepts him as sovereign of all of the Cisalpine Roman provinces. Constantine agrees to be Caesar (deputy) to Flavius Valerius Severus, who was Caesar of Constantius I Chlorus. Constantine does not win a clear title to the throne until his dramatic victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 AD). However, for all practical purposes, he is in fact Emperor Constantine I. Constantine I rules 306-d.337. Galerius replaces Flavius Valerius Severus with Licinus. 306 AD Constantine I, the Great, is Emperor in the East. 306 AD He will rule the East until his death in 337 AD. Constantine. Defeats the Franks who had invaded Gaul (modern day France). 306 AD Maxentius, son of Maximian, is Emperor in the West. 306-312 AD Maxentius will fiercely persecute the Christians up until his death in 312. Famine throughout Cappadocia, Asia Minor. 307 AD Number of thousands of deaths is unknown. Martyrdom of St. Catherine of Alexandria. November 25, 307 AD Maxentius (son of Maximian). Orders the execution of Flavius Valerius Severus. 307 AD St. James of Nisibis (d.338). Syrian. Named first bishop of Nisibis, Mesopotamia. c. 308 AD He builds a basilica and founds a school of Theology there. He will be a fierce opponent of the Arian Heresy (Arianism) at the Council of Nicaea (325). Martyrdom of St. Quirinus, Bishop of Siscia (Sisak, Croatia). 308 AD During the persecution of Christians throughout the Roman Empire. When he refuses to sacrifice to pagan gods, he is tortured and then drowned in the Raab River at Sabaria (modern Szombathely, Hungary). Saint Marcellus I. 30th Pope. 308-309 AD Birthplace: Rome. Maxentius is recognized by the praetorians. 308 AD He banishes his father Maximian to Roman Gaul. Saint Eusebius. 31st Pope. 309-310 AD Birthplace: Greece. Martyrdom of St. Pamphilus. 309 AD He is first tortured and then beheaded for refusing to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to the pagan gods. Martyrdom of St. Emigdio (Italian: Emidio) (c.273-309). Cephalophore. He is beheaded. August 5, 309 AD Reign of Shapur II of the Sassanian Empire (Persia). 309-379 AD He is the Persian king from birth (309). Carries on a series of wars with Rome. During his rule, Shapur II will recover Armenia from the Romans. Anthrax spreads throughout the Roman Empire. 309 AD St. Hilarion. Establishes a foundation for hermits in Palestine. c.310 AD Famine. England. Almost 40,000 perish. c.310 AD Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus. Having been twice discovered in conspiracy against his son-in-law, he is ordered to choose the manner of his death. He strangles himself to death. 310 AD St. Melchiades (also called Meltiades or Miltiades). 32nd Pope. Birthplace: Roman North Africa. 311-314 AD Martyrdom of St. Peter of Alexandria. 311 AD Valerius Licinianus Licinus. Emperor in the West. As a pagan, he rejects the Christian doctrine of Salvation, Redemption, and Deliverance. 311 AD Martyrdom of Saint Achatius. May 8, 311 AD Tortured and then beheaded under Flascius, the proconsul of Thracia. St. Anthony the Great (Antonio Magnus). Goes to Alexandria, during the persecutions, in order to give encouragement to the Christians that are being persecuted there. 311 AD Constantine begins his march on Rome. 311 AD Savage Huns from the north sack the Chinese city of Luoyang. 311 AD They kill 30,000 Chinese. Martyrdom of St. Lucian of Antioch. Jan. 7, 312 AD Arrested at Nicomedia when Emperor Diocletian’s persecution of the Christians began in 303. After a long imprisonment of nine years during which he refused to reject Christ and sacrifice to pagan gods, he is finally convicted of being a follower of Jesus Christ. He is racked and then sworded to death at Nicomedia, Bithynia. Conversion of Constantine the Great. On the eve of the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Oct. 27, 312 AD (“In hoc signo vinces”). Constantine is the first Roman Emperor to convert from paganism to Christianity. Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Oct. 28, 312 AD Constantine defeats and kills Augustus Maxentius, son of Maximian, at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (nine miles from Rome). Constantine defeats the last of his rivals. Constantine takes the city of Rome. 312 AD Constantine the Great becomes Emperor of the Western Empire. 312 AD The Arch of Constantine. Rome. 312-315 AD Death of Diocletian. 313 AD Roman Emperor from 284-305. Constantine and Licinius rule the west and east Empire. 313-323 AD Edict of Milan. 313 AD Promulgated by Emperor Constantine I and his fellow Emperor Licinius. The Edict of Milan makes Christianity legal in the Roman Empire. All Christian prisoners are released from prisons. Restoration of Christians’ confiscated property. After 280 years, the religion for which millions had been killed since the Crucifixion, begins to become the religion of the Roman Empire. Licinius. Defeats Maximin. 313 AD Maximinus Daia commits suicide. 313 AD Donatus. Bishop of Carthage. 313 Beginning of the Donatist Heresy (Donatism) against the Catholic Church. Pope St. Miltiades (also called Melchiades). Holds a synod at the Lateran Palace. 313 AD He condemns Donatus (the Donatist Heresy, i.e. Donatism). St. Alexander (c.250-328). Named Bishop of Alexandria, Egypt. 313 AD Saint Sylvester I. 33rd Pope. 314-335 AD Birthplace: Rome. Council of Arles. Condemns the Donatist Heresy (Donatism). Also reaffirms the primacy of Rome in the Christian Church. 314 AD St. Macarius (d.c.335). Named Bishop of Jerusalem. 314 AD Fights against the Arian Heresy. He will be one of the signers of the decrees of the Council of Nicaea (325). Battle of Cibalae. October 8, 314 AD Constantine defeats Licinianus Licinius, his co-emperor of the east. Licinius loses most of the Balkans. Martyrdom of Saint Blaise. Bishop of Sebaste, Armenia. Feb. 3, 316 AD He is beheaded after terrible torments by order of Agricolaus, the Governor of Cappadocia and Lower Armenia, during the persecution under Licinius. Birth of Saint Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397) at Sabaria in Pannonia. 316 AD Licinianus Licinius. Withdraws from his position of allowing Christians to live and starts the executions once again. 316 AD Alexander (c.244-340). Elected patriarch of Constantinople. He is seventy three years old. 317 AD White Huns begin their invasion of China. 317 AD China is divided once again, from 317 until 589. 317 AD St. Athanasius (c.293-373). “Contra Gentes” (“Against the Gentiles”). c. 318-323 AD St. Athanasius is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Church. Appearance of the Heresiarch Arius (the Arian Heresy). 318 AD Arius, a priest of Alexandria, teaches that the Son of God was created. Teaches that Jesus, as a human being, did not share the essential nature of God. He rejects the oneness of God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. The Arian Heresy (Arianism) will last 318-381. Martyrdom of St. Theodota. 318 AD She is scourged, racked, torn with an iron comb, and then stoned to death for refusing to deny Jesus Christ and sacrifice to Apollo. St. Pachomius (c.292-348). In response to a vision bidding him to build a Christian monastery at Tabennisi, on the Nile River in Egypt, he builds a cell there. c. 318 AD Later establishes a monastery. He rejects the Arian Heresy (Arianism). Licinianus Licinius continues the severe persecutions of the Christians in the East once again. 319 AD Forty Martyrs of Sebastia. 320 AD Strife of the Donatists (Donatism) in Roman north Africa. 320 AD Excommunication of the Heresiarch Arius by a council convened by Alexander, the Bishop of Alexandria, Egypt. 320 AD Introduction of Christianity into the Kingdom of Auxem. 320-350 AD Chandragupta I (d.330). Crowned first Gupta emperor of northern India. 320 AD Founds the Gupta dynasty in India. Reign of Chandragupta I. 320-330 Establishes the Gupta Empire that will rule India 320-c.544. His reign marks the high point of Hinduism in India. Fresh raids by the Goths are driven back. 321 AD Licinianus Licinius. Orders the execution of Christians throughout the eastern empire. 322 AD St. Pachomius. Institutes an early monastic community in Egypt. 323 AD Constantine determines to stop the torture and execution of Christians under the rule of Licinianus Licinus. 323 AD Battle of Adrianople. July 3, 323 AD Emperor Constantine wins a decisive victory over Licinianus Licinius at Adrianople (Hadrianopolis). Licinius retreats into Byzantium. 20,000 total war dead. Battle of Chrysopolis (Scutari). Sept. 18, 324 AD In a deadly assault, Constantine’s regulars kill almost 20,000 of the 50,000 men opposing them. Licinianus Licinius is captured. He capitulates. Constantine has Licinianus Licinius executed at Salonika. 324 AD Constantine. After conquering his co-emperor Licinius, reunites the western and eastern parts of the empire under Rome and becomes the sole ruler (emperor). Constantine rules 324-337. 324 AD Constantine rules from the Euphrates River to the Clyde in the Roman province of Britannia. St. Sylvester. Pope. Consecration of the church that is called “Saint John Lateran” (Basilica) in Rome. 324 AD Constantine declares Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. Christianity is no longer illegal. 324 AD Council of Nicaea. May 20-June 325 AD This is the first ecumenical or general council of the church. The Council of Nicaea is called by Emperor Constantine the Great in Bithynia, in Asia Minor. 318 Bishops attend to reaffirm the Apostolic Christian doctrines. They formulate the Christian creed (the Nicene Creed). Representatives of the four Patriarchates of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome are present at the Council of Nicaea. The Council is held under Pope St. Sylvester I. Only six Bishops represent the West. These are: Hosius, Bishop of Cordova. Caecilian, Bishop of Carthage. Eustorgius, Bishop of Milan. Marcus, Bishop of Calabria. Domnus, Bishop of Strido (in Pannonia). Nicasius, Bishop of Dijon. The false doctrines of the heretic Arius (Arianism) are condemned and unanimously rejected by 318 bishops of the Catholic Church. Arius is excommunicated. Donatism is condemned. Constantine. Begins building the foundations of his new city, Byzantium (it will be known as Constantinople). 325 AD Constantine. Forbids government officials to offer sacrifices or worship to the pagan gods of Greece, Rome, Egypt, or Asia. 325 AD Constantine. The first Christian emperor, forbids the gladiatorial games. These games seem to have been a survival of the widespread ancient practice of offering human sacrifices at the funerals of great chieftains. 325 AD Construction of the first Church of the Nativity of Jesus Christ, Bethlehem. Will be destroyed by fire in 529. 325 AD Severe, bitter famine throughout England. 325 AD Helena, the mother of Constantine, goes to Jerusalem. She discovers the True Cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Sept. 14, 326 AD St. Athanasius (c.293-373) “De Incarnatione Verbi Dei”. c.326-328 AD (“On the Incarnation of the Word”). Savage persecution of Christians begins in Persia. 326 AD Will continue to c. 480. St. Peter’s at Rome, founded by Emperor Constantine, is consecrated by St. Silvester. Nov. 18, 326 AD Martyrdom of St. Jonas, St. Barachisius, and their Companions. 327 AD Under King Sapor II of Persia, they are frightfully tortured for refusing to reject Jesus Christ and worship the Sun. They are eventually put to death. Saint Athanasius (b.c. 293-d.373). Elected Bishop of Alexandria upon the death of his predecessor Bishop Alexander of Alexandria. 328 AD St. Gregory Nazianzen the Elder (c. 276-374). Becomes bishop of Nazianzus, falls into heresy, but is brought back to orthodoxy in 361 by his son St. Gregory Nazianzen (c. 329-389). c.328 AD Murder of Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine. 326 AD Murder of Fausta, wife of Constantine. Constantine, with his mother Helena, begin the building of basilicas. Helena (250-330). Discovery of the tomb where Jesus Christ was buried in Jerusalem (the Holy Sepulchre). 328 AD Birth of Saint Basil the Great (329-379) in Caesarea. 329 AD Founding of Constantinople. 330 AD Constantine builds the eastern capital of Constantinople on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantine. Constantine moves the capital of the Roman Empire, to the site of Byzantium, the old Greek colony. He establishes the new capital of the Roman Empire at Constantinople. Byzantium is renamed Constantinople. Constantinople is made the seat of the Roman Empire in the East. Solemn inauguration. May 11, 330 AD Construction of the Church of St. Peter’s Basilica is completed. This structure will be taken down in 1506 in order to make room for the present day Cathedral of St. Peter. 330 AD The Basilica is built over the burial site of Saint Peter the Apostle, on the Vatican Hill. Eusebius of Nicomedia, a supporter of Arius (Arianism), persuades Emperor Constantine to direct St. Athanasius to admit Arius to communion. St. Athanasius refuses to obey the order. 330 AD Birth of St. Gregory of Nyssa. 330 AD Famine. Antioch. 331 AD The city of Antioch is so starved that a bushel of wheat sells for 400 pieces of silver. Tens of thousands die. Edict of Constantine. 331 AD Directed against heresy. Forbids assemblies of heretics and orders the confiscation of their meeting places. Martyrdom of St. Gregory the Illuminator (257-332). c. 332 AD Helped to free Armenia from the Persians. Constantine. Mounts his campaign against the Tervingi from his base in Oltenia. Defeats the Tervingi. 332 AD Maximinius of Trier. Succeeds St. Agritius as Bishop of Trier. 333 AD Ausonius sets up his school of Rhetoric at Bordeaux (in Gaul). 334 AD Saint Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Born at Sabaria, Pannonia (in modern Hungary), he experiences his conversion from paganism to Christianity. 334 AD St. Macarius (d.c. 335). Bishop of Jerusalem. Consecrates the Church of the Holy Sepulcher of Jesus. Sept. 13, 335 AD He had been commissioned to build the church in Jerusalem by the Emperor Constantine. St. Macarius also supervised the actual building of the basilica. St. Macarius the Younger (d. 394). He is also known as St. Macarius of Alexandria. Becomes a monk in the Thebaid, Upper Egypt. 335 AD He spends the remaining sixty years of his life as a hermit. In 373 he will move to Lower Egypt. Council of Tyre. 335 AD Council is hostile to St. Athanasius. Arius (Arian Heresy) is banished by Constantine. St. Athanasius is banished to Trier in Germany. This is his first exile. 335 AD St. Marcus (St. Mark). 34th Pope. 336-337 AD Birthplace: Rome. Famine and plague throughout Syria. 336 AD Tens of thousands perish. The Death of Arius (Arianism). 336 AD The great Heresiarchy, Arius, comes to Constantinople with an order from the Emperor that he be received into the Church by St. Alexander (c. 244-340), the Patriarch of Constantinople. St. Alexander prays that either he himself or Arius be removed. Arius teaches that Jesus Christ is the highest creation of God. He rejects the indivisible Trinity. He rejects the oneness of God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. The day before the scheduled reception of Arius by St. Alexander, Arius dies a sudden and horrible death in a public lavatory. Shapur II, ruler of Persia, embarks on a new warf against the Romans. Defeats Roman forces. 337 AD The Romans fight a series of wars with the Persians, which will end (363) with the loss of parts of Armenia and Mesopotamia. 337 AD Shapur II of Persia demands the restitution of all the provinces that Persia had formerly possessed in Asia Minor. Saint Julius I. 35th Pope. 337-352 AD Birthplace: Rome. Vandals driven by the Goths obtain leave to settle in Pannonia. 337 AD Death of Constantine the Great. 337 AD Constantine dies at Nicomedia after being baptized on his deathbed by Eusebius of Nicomedia. Constantine is 64 years old. Constantine is succeeded by his three sons (co-emperors) Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans. St. Julius is Pope Julius I. 337-352 AD 35th Pope. St. Athanasius (b.c.293-d.373) re-enters Alexandria, Egypt. 337 AD Meeting of the three sons of Constantine the Great at Viminiacum in order to partition the Roman Empire. 338 AD St. Athanasius leaves Alexandria, another bishop Gregory, having been appointed in his place. St. Athanasius stays at Rome and speaks of St. Antony the Great (Antonius Magnus), and the monastic movement in Egypt. Second exile of St. Athanasius: 340 until 346. 340 AD Constantine II is killed in the Battle of Aquileia, fighting against his brother Constans. 340 AD With the death of Constantine II, Rome splits again into two parts, with Constans as the Western Emperor and Constantius II as the Eastern Emperor. 340 AD Birth of St. Ambrose (b.c.340-d.397) at Treves. 340 AD Ambrose will later baptize St. Augustine of Hippo. Introduction of monasticism from Egypt to Western Christendom by Saint Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, in Egypt. 340 AD Saint Frumentius (d.c. 380). Begins the conversion of Ethiopia from paganism to Christianity. 340 AD Saint Eusebius (c. 283-371). Elected Bishop of Vercelli. 340 AD Death of St. Macrina the Elder. 340 AD Pappus of Alexandria (c.300-c.350). “Synagoge” (“Mathematical Collections”). 340 AD Writings on Geometry. Pappus of Alexandria (c.300-c.350). Describes five machines that are in use. c.340 AD The lever, the pulley, the screw, the wedge, and the cogwheel. Shapur II. King of Sassanian Persia. Orders thousands of Christians to be executed in Persia. 341 AD Martyrdom of St. Simeon Barsabae. 341 AD As the Bishop of Seleucia and Ctesphon, he is arrested during the persecutions of Sapor (Shapur) II, King of Persia. He refuses to reject Jesus Christ and worship the Sun. He is first tortured and then imprisoned. After being forced to witness the beheading of over one hundred members of his church, he himself is beheaded. Council at Antioch (also called the “Council of Dedication”). 341 AD The Eusebians produce an Arian formula at Antioch. Ulfilas (Wulfila), 311-c.383, becomes Bishop of the Visigoths at the Synod of Antioch. Ulfilas is an Arian. 341 AD Ulfilas produces a translation of the Holy Scriptures into Gothic (the language of Gothia). Wulfila begins the conversion of the Visigoths to Arianism. 341 AD Resettles them (c. 348) in the Balkans. Death of St. Paul the Hermit (Paul of Thebes) (229-342). He is one hundred and thirteen years old. 342 AD The Eusebians (Arians) produce a second Arian (Arianism) formula at Philippopolis. 342 AD Visit of semi-Arian bishops to Constans with a form of the “Council of Dedication” creed. 342 AD St. Julius I. Pope: 337-352. Julius I holds a council in Rome and pronounces the complete innocence of St. Athanasius (anti-Arianism). 342 AD Birth of Saint Jerome (Eusebius Heironymus), c. 342-420, at Strido, near Aquileia, Dalmatia. c. 342 AD Death of Saint Nicholas of Myra (Bishop of Myra). Dec. 6, 343 AD Dies at Myra. His remains will be moved to Bari, Italy in 1087. Council of Sardica. 343-344 AD Made up of half western bishops and half eastern bishops. They attempt to issue a new creed; conflict over the word “homoousion”. Attempts at reconciliation fail (344). The Eusebians (Arians) produce a third Arian (Arianism) formula, once again at Antioch. 344 AD Death of Gregory (the Arian Bishop of Alexandria). St. Athanasius is restored to Alexandria. 345 AD Birth of Saint John Chrysostom (347-407) in Antioch. 347 AD One of the four Greek Fathers of the Church. St. Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315-386). “Catecheses” (on the Christian doctrine). c. 348 AD Provides a clear explanation of the instruction that is given to those that are preparing for Baptism. Discusses the indivisible Trinity, the Incarnation, Salvation, Redemption, and Deliverance. Death of St. Pachomius (c. 292-348). May 15, 348 AD St. Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315-386). Succeeds St. Maximus as Bishop of Jerusalem. 349 AD St. Athanasius (c.293-373). Writes “Discourses Against the Arians”. 349-352 AD Explains the errors of the Arian Heresy (Arianism). German born Roman general Flavius Magnus Magnentius attempts to usurp the Roman throne and kills co-emperor Constans. 350 AD Magnentius becomes Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Saint Anthony the Great (251-356). Goes to Alexandria to preach against Arianism. Arianism is the doctrine teaching that Jesus Christ the Son is not co-equal and co-eternal with God the Father. At this time Antony is about 100 years old. ca.350 AD The Sassanian Persians regain Armenia from the Romans. 350 AD St. Hilary of Poitier (France) renounces paganism and is baptized in the name of Jesus Christ. 350 AD The Huns, nomads from Central Asia, begin to invade Europe. c. 350 AD Hermanric. King of the Ostrogoths. 350-375 AD Schola Cantorum. Rome. 350 AD Founded for church music and singing. Santa Costanza Church. Rome. c.350 AD St. Basil (329-379). Enters the University of Athens. c. 351 AD He remains there for five years. He studies History, Poetics, Geometry, Astronomy, Philosophy, Logic, Dialectics, Grammar, and Rhetoric. Armenia aligns itself with the Roman Empire against Persia. 351 AD Battle of Mursa. Sept. 28, 351 AD Constantius II, the Roman co-emperor, with an army of 40,000 men, defeats the usurper, Magnentius leading 50,000 men at Mursa, near the Danube-Drave confluence (in the future Yugoslavia). 27,000 total war dead. Constantius II pursues Magnentius into Gaul. Constantius II, from 350-361, moves to exterminate orthodox Christianity and deal with St. Athanasius once and for all. 352 AD Constantius II is a follower of the Arian Heresy (Arianism). Constantius makes a determined effort to reject the Nicean doctrine (Christianity) and promulgate the Arian Heresy throughout the Roman Empire. Election of Liberius. 352 AD 36th Pope (352-366). Constantius II. Determines to force a form of semi-Arianism on the Christian Church. Constantius II wages a fierce attack against the anti-Arian St. Athanasius and the Nicene Creed. 352 AD Chondomar. Leads serious invasions of Germanic barbarians. 352 AD Magnentius, in order to avoid capture by Constantine II, commits suicide. Leaves Constantius II in complete command of the Roman Empire. 353 AD The unity of the Roman Empire is re-established once again. Constantius II reunites the Roman Empire as Emperor of both the West and the East. He makes his headquarters at Sirmium. 353 AD St. Hilary of Poitiers (d. 368). Elected Bishop of Poitiers, despite his objections to taking the position. c.353 AD Birth of St. Paulinus of Nola, near Bordeaux, France. 353 AD Constantius II (Arian) causes packed council at Arles to condemn St. Athanasius (Christian/anti-Arian). 353 AD Constantius II (Arian) exiles Pope Liberius (Christian) and appoints the Arian archdeacon Felix to succeed him as pope. 353 AD St. Nerses the Great (d.c. 373). He is made Katholikos of the Armenians against his will. 353 AD Birth of Augustine (Aurelius Augustinus) (b.354-d.430) at Tagaste in Roman Numidia. 354 AD The false pope Felix (Arian) is rejected by the people as pope. 354 AD Constantius II decrees Christmas day to be held on December 25. 354 AD Baptism of Saint Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). 354 AD Constantius II (Arian). Appoints Julian to be his Caesar (deputy). 355 AD Constantius sends him to lead a campaign in Gaul against the Franks and the Alemanni. St. Hilary of Poitiers (d. 368). Refuses to attend the synod at Milan that has been called by the Arian Emperor Constantius II, at which the bishops present are required to sign a condemnation of St. Athanasius or else be sent into exile. 355 AD Packed council held at request of pope is held at Milan, Italy. 355 AD Constantius II (Arian) forces bishops to condemn St. Athanasius (anti-Arian) and sign an Arian creed or else be sent into exile. Lucifer of Calarais, Eusebius of Vercellae, Dionysius of Milan, St. Hilary of Poitier, Rhodianus of Toulouse, and Pope Liberius refuse to sign the Arian creed and are condemned to exile. The Alemanni cross the Rhine River and enter into Eastern Gaul. 355 AD The great invasion of the Germanic barbarians grows in intensity. The barbarians reach as far as Autun. Saint Basil the Great (329-379). Teaches Rhetoric at Caesarea. 355 AD St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Now aged forty, and serving in the Roman army at Worms, under Julian, Martin obtains a discharge from the army. 356 AD He will live in Italy for a while. Martin will later join St. Hilary at Poitiers. St. Hilary of Poitiers (anti-Arian). St. Hilary is condemned for his Christian orthodoxy (anti-Arianism) by the synod of Béziers, presided over by the Arian Bishop Saturninus of Arles. The synod is composed mainly of Arian bishops. 356 AD St. Hilary of Poitiers is condemned to exile by the Emperor Constantius II to Phrygia, Asia Minor. Period of exile: 356-359. St. Athanasius (anti-Arian). Third Exile. 356-361 AD St. Hilary of Poitiers (d.368). “De Trinitate” (“On the Trinity). Begins. 356-360 AD The Franks and the Alemanni pour into Roman Gaul. 356-357 AD Death of Saint Anthony the Great (251-356). January 17, 356 AD He lived to the age of one hundred and five. St. Athanasius is threatened once again. Athanasius goes into the desert with the monks. 356 AD Constantius II (Arian) sets foot in Rome for the first time. 357 AD Julian. Roman general. Defeats the Alemanni at Strasbourg and drives them back across the Rhine River. 357 AD Liberius weakens and signs against St. Athanasius. 357 AD Council of Sirmium. 357 AD Declaration of Arianism is signed by many Arian false bishops. St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397) is ordained an exorcist by St. Hilary of Poitiers (c.315-368). c.357 AD St. Athanasius publishes the “Life of St. Antony the Great”. 357 AD Baptism of Saint Basil the Great (329-379). He is 27 years of age. 357 AD St. Basil the Great (329-379). Settles by the Iris River in Pontus, Asia Minor. 358 AD Council of Seleucia in the East. 359 AD 150 eastern bishops are forced to reject the Christian creed and accept a false Arian creed (Arianism). St. Hilary of Poitiers (d. 368). Succeeds in refuting Arianism at the council of Eastern bishops held at Seleucia. He so encourages the clergy to reject the Arian Heresy that the Arian heretics request that the Arian Emperor send him back to Gaul. 359 AD St. Athanasius. “De Synodis”. 359 AD Council of Ariminum (Rimini). 359 AD 400 bishops assemble. 320 bishops defend the Nicene Creed and doctrine. 80 bishops are Arians (Arianism). After seven months, they eventually agree to sign the formulary, avoiding the word “homoousion”. St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Sets up a hermitage on the island of Gallinaria. 359 AD He is accompanied by a presbyter. Birth of Gratian. Future Emperor. 359 AD Destruction of the city of Nicomedia, Asia Minor by earthquake. 359 AD The city of Nicomedia, Bythnia is leveled by an earthquake. Most of the thousands of inhabitants are buried. Second Persian War with Rome. 359-361 30,000 total war dead. St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Returns to Gaul. 360 AD St. Hilary of Poitiers (d. 368) “De Trinitate, libris XII” (“On the Trinity"). 360 AD Completed. Baptism of Saint Jerome (c. 342-420) by Pope Liberius at Rome. 360 AD Council of Constantinople. Jan. 360 AD Delegates sign the Arian creed of Ariminum (Rimini). Delegates attend the dedication of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople. St. Hilary of Poitiers (d.368). While Hilary is in exile in Constantinople, he writes an open letter “Contra Constantium imperatorem”. 360 AD Banishment of St. Hilary of Poitier (d.368) is ended by the Emperor. Hilary is ordered back to his home in Poitiers, Gaul. 360 AD Julian is taken by his troops and crowned Augustus. April 360 AD Macedonius. Heresiarch. Rise of Macedonianism, the doctrine that the Holy Spirit is not co-equal and not co-eternal with God the Father and God the Son. c. 360 AD That is to say, that the Holy Spirit (the Holy Ghost) is a creation of God. This heresy advanced by the heresiarch Macedonius, the Bishop of Constantinople, will later be condemned by the Council of Constantinople that will be held in 381 AD. Founding of the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas in Kansu by Lo-tsun, a Chinese Buddhist. 360 AD The Huns invade Europe. 360 AD The Picts, Irish, Scots, and Saxons cross Hadrian's Wall and invade Roman Britain. 360-369 AD Beginning of the gradual replacement of scrolls by books. 360 AD Julian Apostata marches towards Constantius II at Antioch. 361 AD St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Arrives at Ligugé in order to found his first community. Martin will remain at Ligugé until 371. 361 AD Death of Constantius II (Arian). He is 44 years old. Nov. 361 AD Julian the Apostate enters the city of Constantinople. Dec. 361 AD Reign of Julian the Apostate (Apostata). Emperor. 361-363 AD Denies the divinity of Jesus Christ. Rejects the indivisible Trinity. Rejects the Virgin birth, the Incarnation, and the Resurrection. Rejects the Old Testament and the New Testament. Unsuccessfully attempts to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem. Julian the Apostate attempts to replace Christianity with Mithraism, a pagan religion, developed out of Zoroastrianism. Gregory the Great is ordained presbyter. 361 AD St. Gregory Nazianzen (c. 329-389). c. 362 AD He is ordained, but most unwillingly. St. Gregory Nazianzen is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Church. Council at Alexandria. 362 AD Held under the chairmanship of St. Athanasius (anti-Arianism). Julian the Apostate (Apostata). Issues an edict against St. Athanasius. 362 AD Julian the Apostate. Campaigns against the Sassanian Persians (Shapur II). 362-363 AD Martyrdoms of St. Juventius and St. Maximinus. January 25, 363 AD They are officers of the guard of Emperor Julian the Apostate. They are tortured, scourged, and then beheaded at Antioch when they refuse to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to the pagan gods. Martyrdom of St. Donato (Donatus) of Arezzo. August 7, 362 AD He is beheaded at Arezzo, Italy during the reign of the pagan Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate (Apostata). Martyrdom of St. Elpidius. September 26, 362 AD He is first tortured and then burned to death during the reign of the Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate. Ordination of Saint Basil the Great (329-379) at Caesarea. 363 AD Returns to Pontus because of a disagreement with Archbishop Eusebius. Death of Julian the Apostate (Apostata). 363 AD He is killed by an arrow during the Battle of Samarra fighting against the Sassanian Persians near Samarra, on the Tigris River. Reign of Roman Emperor Jovian (b.331-d.364). 363-364 AD Elected by soldiers. His full name is Flavius Iovianus. Emperor Jovian. Surrenders Mesopotamia to the Persians. 363 AD Emperor Jovian makes peace with Persia. 363 AD Rome and Persia are at peace. 363-420 AD Restoration of Christianity by Emperor Jovian. 363 AD Jovian dies. 364 AD Soldiers elect Valentinian I Emperor of the West with his brother, Valens (364-378) co-emperor in the East. Division of the Roman Empire into West and East. 364 AD Valens (364-378). Rules the Eastern Roman Empire from the Lower Danube River to the Persian border. Valens is an avowed Arian (Arianism). Valentinian I (364-375). Rules the Western Empire from Caledonia in Roman Britannia to northwestern Roman Africa. The Roman scholar Ausonius is summoned to the Roman court in order to teach Gratian, the son of Valentinian I. 364 AD St. Hilary of Poitiers (d.368). Holds a public debate at Milan, Italy, with Auxentius, the Arian (Arian heresy) usurper of the see of Milan. 364 AD Valens. Arian ruler of the Eastern Empire. 365 AD Banishes all Christian (anti-Arian) bishops. They must be Arian (Arian Heresy). Gregory Nazianzen (c.329-389). Requests St. Basil (329-379) the Great for his assistance in combating Arianism (the Arian Heresy) in Nazianzus. 365 AD Earthquake. Alexandria, Egypt. 365 AD The city of Alexandria, Egypt is destroyed. The 4th Wonder of the Ancient World (the 600 foot Lighthouse of Alexandria) is also destroyed. Almost 60,000 people are killed. Valentinian I. Western Emperor. Struggles with the increasing barbarian attacks in Roman Gaul, Illyricum, and Roman north Africa. 365-371 AD St. Athanasius the Great (c.293-373). Returns to his see in Alexandria, Egypt after seventeen long years of on-and-off exile. 365 AD Death of both Pope Liberius and Felix (the false Arian Pope). 366 AD Saint Damasus I (b.c.304-d.384). 37th Pope. 366-384 AD Birthplace: Rome. Since Damasus I is a Christian (anti-Arianism), he is a fierce opponent of the Arian Heresy (Arianism). The Goths invade Thrace. The Goths are defeated by the generals of Valens. 366 AD Upon the invasion of the Huns, the Ostrogoths separate from the Visigoths. Gratian, son of Valentinian I. Elected western co-emperor (367-383) at Amiens in Roman Gaul. 367 AD Theodosius the Elder (d. 376). Wars against the Picts in Roman Britain. 367-369 AD Valen’s Gothic war. 367-369 AD EasternEmperor Valens is at war with the Goths. Valens. Arian emperor of the East. Banishes all of the Christian (anti-Arian) Bishops that had returned during the reign of Julian the Apostate. 367 AD St. Athanasius the Great (c.293-373). Easter letter for the year 367. 367 AD This is the first official document which prescribes the twenty seven books of the New Testament in their present form as being alone canonical (divinely inspired). An alliance of Irish, Picts (from Scotland), and Saxons (from north Germania) overcome the defenses of Britain and begin to plunder the Roman provinces for almost two years. 367 AD The Picts, Scotti, and Saxons after reaching Roman London, plunder the city from 367 to 368. 367-368 AD General Theodosius (“Comes Britanniarum”). Is sent with a relief force to Roman Britannia in order to stop the destruction caused by the barbarians. General Theodosius successfully drives back the barbarians. 368 AD Theodosius retakes Hadrian’s Wall and restores order in Roman Britannia. General Theodosius mounts a punitive expedition into Hibernia (modern day Ireland). Note: This Theodosius is not to be confused with Theodosius the Great, the future emperor of the Roman Empire. St. Jerome. Returns to a desert in the Holy Land in order to meditate on the life and person of Jesus Christ. c. 368 AD Jerome is about 28 years old at this time. Valentinian I and his son Gratian campaign against the Alamanni. 368 AD They defeat the Alamanni at Solicinium (Schwetzingen). Death of St. Hilary of Poitiers (c.315-368). January 13, 368 AD Based on St. Jerome, St. Hilary died on January 13. However his day is observed on November 1. Baptism of St. John Chrystostom (c. 347-407). St. John Chrysostom is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. c. 369 AD St. Basil the Great (329-379). Founds, at Caesarea in Cappadocia, an institution with several buildings for schools, patients, and physicians. 369 AD A Japanese expeditionary force establishes a Japanese colony in Mimana, in what is now South Korea. 369 AD Reign of Athanaric. Prince of the West Goths. He is a fierce opponent of Christianity. 369-381 AD Athanaric, Prince of the West Goths, is defeated by the Huns and driven out from the north of the Danube River. c. 369 AD Saint Ephraem (c.306-373). Opens a hospital at Edessa. c.369 AD St. Optatus (d.c. 387). Optatus is a convert from paganism to Christianity. Writes the famous treatise “Against Parmenian the Donatist”. 370 AD He refutes the teachings of the Donatist Bishop Parmenian of Carthage. This treatise is still extant. Evagrius of Anticoh. “Vita Antonii”. Translation from Greek to Latin. 370 AD Expansion of monasticism in the west as a result of this work. Saint Basil (Basileus) the Great (329-379). Reluctantly becomes elected archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. Basil writes an obligatory rule for Greek monasticism. 370 AD Basil consequently becomes metropolitan of some fifty suffragan bishops, despite the fierce opposition of the Arian Emperor Valens. St. Basil is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. St. Ambrose (b.340-d.397). Appointed Governor of Aemilia and Liguria. 370 AD His capital is at Milan, Italy. Desolation of Phrygia by famine. 370 AD Ten thousand die. St. Peter of Sebastea (c. 340-391). Ordained a priest. 370 AD St. Ephraem (c.306-d.373) visits St. Basil the Great at Caesarea. 370 AD Death of St. Hilarion the Great (291-371). October 21, 371 AD St. Hilarion had been born of pagan parents in Gaza, Palestine. Valens (Arian emperor). Divides Caesarea into two sees. 371 AD Saint Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Despite his objections, he is consecrated Bishop of Tours. 371 AD He will remain in this position until his death in 397. Death of St. Eusebius of Vercelli (c. 283-371), at Vercelli. August 1, 371 AD Introduction of Buddhism into Korea. 372 AD Augustine. Becomes a follower of the Manichean Heresy (Manichaenism). 372 AD Augustine will be a Manichaean for nine years. Invasion of Russia by the Huns. 372 AD Destruction of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Southern Russia by the Huns that are moving westward. St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Founds the monastery at Marmoutier, called “Maius Monasterium”, (“the larger monastery”). 372 AD Saint Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Visits Valentinian I, the emperor of the Western Roman empire. 372 AD St. Gregory Nazianzen (c.329-389). Named Bishop of Sasima in Arian territory but he never goes there. 372 AD St. Gregory Nazianzen is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. St. Gregory of Nyssa (c.330-c.395). Named Bishop of Nyssa, Lower Armenia. 372 AD Martyrdom of St. Sabas the Goth. April 12, 372 AD Interrogation of Saint Basil the Great (329-379) by Modestus the Arian prefect. 372 AD St. Athanasius the Great consecrates Peter as his successor. 373 AD Peter II. 21st Patriarch of Alexandria. 373-381 AD Death of Saint Athanasius (c.293-373) of Alexandria. May 2, 373 AD He dies at Alexandria, Egypt. Death of Saint Ephraem (c.306-373). June 9, 373 AD Death of St. Gregory Nazianzen the Elder (c. 276-374). St. Gregory Nazianzen (c.329-389) the Younger continues administering the see until a new bishop is chosen. 374 AD Death of Auxentius, Bishop of Milan, and an Arian heretic. 374 AD Milan is thrown into a turmoil as the Arians and the Christians each fight to have their candidate made bishop. Ambrose is unanimously elected bishop of Milan by all of the parties. St. Ambrose refuses to accept the position. He is forced to accept the position by the western Emperor. Baptism of Ambrose, followed by his ordination, and his consecration as Bishop of Milan (December 7). 374 AD Ambrose gives away all of his possessions. He begins a study of the Old Testament and New Testament, the great Christian writers, theology, the history of the Church, and begins to live a life of great discipline. Ambrose becomes one of the most powerful preachers of his day. He is the most formidable opponent of Arianism in the West. Ambrose will be Bishop of Milan until his death in 397. 374-397 AD Saint Jerome (c.342-420). Jerome settles at Antioch. c. 374 AD Antioch was one of the five great capital cities of the Roman Empire. These five great cities were Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Carthage, and Antioch. Sudden death of Valentinian I, ruler of the western Roman Empire. 375 AD Flavius Gratianus, his son, becomes Emperor of the West (until 383). His half-brother, Valentinian II is co-emperor in the East. Reign of Gratianus I. Ruler of the western Roman Empire. 375-383 AD He is a protege of St. Ambrose of Milan. Reign of Valentinian II, co-emperor of the East. 375-392 AD St. Basil the Great (329-379). “De Spiritu Sancto” (“On the Holy Spirit”). 375 AD The Huns from Asia cross the Volga River. 375 AD The Huns from the east succeed in entering into Europe. 375 AD The Huns overwhelm the Ostrogothic Kingdom and advance against the Visigoths (West Goths). Visigoths (West Goths). The semi-civilized Goths cross the Danube River. 375 AD Death of Hermanric, King of the Ostrogoths. Fall of the Ostrogothic Kingdom. 375 AD The semi-civilized Visigoths (West Goths) throw themselves at the mercy of the Roman Empire. 376 AD Pressed by and retreating from the savage Huns, the Visigoths implore the protection of Valens (Arian emperor of the East). Valens, the Arian eastern emperor, sympathizes with the Arian Visigoths. Valens allows them to peacefully cross the Danube River and enter into the Roman Empire. 376 AD At first, the Visigoths agree to settle in the Roman province of Moesia. They will revolt however in 378. Martyrdom of St. Bademus and his seven companions. c. 376 AD They are all tortured and martyred during the persecution of the Christians by Shapur II, King of Sassanian Persia. Gratian, the son of Valentinian I, summons his general Theodosius the Elder to replace the Arian emperor Valens as Emperor in the East. 378 AD Revolt of the Visigoths. 378 AD The Visigoths mutiny. The Visigoths are reinforced by the Ostrogoths and the Sarmatian Alans, from across the Danube River. They invade the Roman Balkan provinces. Battle of Adrianople (Hadrianopolis, in Thrace). Aug. 9, 378 AD 20,000 Visigoths and their allies meet the Arian Emperor Valens and his army in front of Adrianople. The Visigoths under Fritigern defeat the Romans due to the onslaught of the Ostrogothic and Sarmatian horsemen, led by the Alan kings, Alatheus and Saphrax. Valens, the Arian Emperor of the East, is defeated and killed fighting the Visigoths. This Roman defeat leaves Greece unprotected from the barbarian hordes. Marks the beginning of the Germanic breakthrough into the Roman Empire. Adrianople is one of the decisive battles of history. This battle marks the definite victory of the barbarian cavalry over the Roman infantry. (Adrianople, now Edirne,Turkey). St. Ursus. Builds Ravenna Cathedral. c. 378 AD Synod at Alexandria. 378 AD Condemns Apollinarianism (the Apollinarian Heresy). Pope St. Damasus I (Pope: 366-384). Holds a council at Rome which condemns Apollinarianism (based on the false teachings of the heresiarch Apollinarius). 378 AD Death of Saint Basil the Great (329-379) at Caesarea. January 1, 379 AD St. Basil is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. Synod at Antioch. 379 AD Condemns Apollinarianism (based on the teachings of Apollinarius). St. Gregory of Nyssa (c.330-c.395). Attends the Council of Antioch, which denounces the Meletian heresy. Gregory of Nyssa is sent by that council to Palestine and Arabia in order to combat the heresy that is spreading there. 379 AD St. Ambrose of Milan. Explains the errors of the Arian Heresy to Emperor Gratian I. 379 AD Ambrose persuades Emperor Gratian I to reject Arianism and accept Christianity. Gratian I. Emperor of the West. Withdraws the edict of toleration of paganism. 379 AD Implies that all forms of heathen worship must cease. St. Jerome. Proceeds to Antioch, where he allows himself to be ordained priest. 379 AD St. Jerome. Spends three years of studies of the Old Testament and the New Testament. 379-382 AD Theodosius I, the Great. Conversion from paganism to Christianity. 379 AD Theodosius, the Great. Becomes Emperor in the East. 379 AD Rules in the East 379-395. Rules in the West after 392. Death of Shapur II (b.309-d.379) of Sassanian Persia. 379 AD He is succeeded by Artaxerxes II. Artaxerxes II rules 379-383. Theodosius the Great. Roman Emperor in the East. Decrees that his subjects must be orthodox (that is, Christian). 380 AD Theodosius orders the Arian heretics either to submit or to leave the kingdom. The Arians leave. Theodosius makes apostolic Christianity, based on the anti-Arian Nicene Creed, the religion of the Roman Empire. Emperor Theodosius bans the worship of the pagan gods of Greece, Rome, Egypt, and Asia. Theodosius, Roman Emperor in the East, and Gratian, the Roman Emperor in the West, both decree apostolic Christianity (anti-Arian) to be the religion of the entire Roman Empire. 380 AD Christianity is made the official religion of the Roman Empire. St. Peter of Sebastea (c.340-391) is named bishop of Sebastea. 380 Council of Saragossa (Spain). 380 Denounces Priscillianism (the Priscillian Heresy). Among many other errors, Priscillian denied that marriage was a lawful state. Priscillian errors were brought to Spain from Egypt and contained elements of Gnosticism and Manicheanism. General Council of Constantinople (the first council held at Constantinople). Second General Ecumenical Council convenes. 381 AD Condemns the Arian Heresy (Arius). Denounces the heresy of Macedonius (Macedonianism). Macedonianism teaches that the Holy Spirit is not uncreated but created. Macedonianism applied Arian teaching to the Holy Spirit. The Council condemns Apollinarianism (Apollinarius will die in 392). The Council decides upon the ranks of the patriarchs by reaffirming first place to Rome, followed by Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch. The patriarch of Jerusalem is later given the fifth rank. St. Gregory Nyssa, St. Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315-386), and St. Peter of Sebastea (c.340-391) are among those present. St. Gregory of Nazianzus the Younger (c.329-389). Made archbishop of Constantinople (Arian dominated) at the General Council of Constantinople. 381 AD Plague and famine at Antioch, during the reign of Theodosius the Great. Two thousands perish. 381 AD St. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407). Becomes a deacon of the Church. 381 AD Chrysostom is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. Theodosius the Great. Roman Emperor in the East. Makes a compact with the West Goths (the Visigoths). 382 AD Theodosius resettles the Visigoths in the Roman Empire. Fritigern and his followers are allowed to settle in the Roman province of Moesia, south of the Danube River. Many of them will become soldiers in the Roman armies. St. Paula (347-404). Meets St. Jerome. 382 AD St. Augustine (354-430) of Hippo. Sets off on the long trip to Rome. He stays there for one year. 382 AD Gratian. Emperor in the West. Orders the removal of the statue of the pagan goddess of victory that is at Rome. 382 AD St. Jerome becomes secretary to Pope St. Damasus I. 382 AD St. Damasus I instructs Jerome to unify the Latin Bible. Roman troops in Britain rise up in revolt. 383 AD Maximus Magnus, the dux Brittaniorum, is made Roman Emperor by the troops in Roman Britannia. Saint Ambrose of Milan. Attempts to persuade Maximus Magnus, dux Brittaniorum, not to attempt to extend his domain into Italy against the new young Emperor Valentinian II (rule: 375-392). 383 AD Roman general Magnus Maximus. Crosses the English Channel, conquers Gaul and Spain, and marches against the western Emperor Gratian in Gaul. 383 AD Emperor Gratian is killed by the troops of Magnus Maximus at Lugdunum (Lyon) in Roman Gaul. 383 AD Triumphal entry of Magnus Maximus into Trèves. 383 AD Magnus Maximus, the leader of the revolt against Gratian, is recognized by Gratian’s younger brother Valentinian II and his co-emperor Theodosius. Maximus was made Emperor while in Roman Britain. 383 AD Maximus rules in Britain, Gaul, and Spain. Maximus Magnus. Roman Emperor in the West. 383-388 AD The barbarians finally overrun Hadrian’s Wall in Roman Britain. 383 AD Shapur III of Sassanian Persia. 383-388 AD St. Augustine (354-430) of Hippo. Leaves Rome and arrives in Milan in order to teach Rhetoric there. 384 AD He is not a Christian yet. He is a follower of Manicheanism (the Manichean Heresy). Death of St. Damasus I (Pope). (b.c. 304-d.384). December 11, 384 AD Saint Siricius. 38th Pope. 384-399 AD Birthplace: Rome. Siricius denounces Jovinian for rejecting the perpetual virginity of Mary. Council of Bordeaux. Called by Magnus Maximus. 384 AD Saint Ambrose of Milan. Succeeds in defeating an attempt by the pagan Quintus Aurelius Symmachus to restore the pagan cult of the goddess of victory in Rome. c.384 AD Pilgrimage of Egeria, a Gaulish nun, to the city of Jerusalem. c.384 AD Birth of Saint Patrick in Roman Britain. c. 385 AD Saint Ambrose of Milan. Successfully resists Valentinian’s order to turn over many of the Christian churches in Milan to a group headed by Valentinian’s mother, the Empress Justina, a secret Arian. 385 AD Council at Trèves. 385 AD Condemnation of Priscillian (Priscillianism), a Spanish heretic. Priscillian is executed for heresy and sortilege (divination). St. Augustine (354-430) of Hippo. “De Dialectica”. c. 385 AD (“On Dialectics”). Saint Ambrose of Milan. Refuses to obey an imperial edict that would practically prohibit Christian gatherings and forbid any opposition to turning Christian churches over to the Arians (Arian Heresy). 386 AD St. Ambrose of Milan. Discovers the bodies of two early Christian martyrs, Saint Gervasius and Saint Protasius. 386 AD Ordination of St. John Chrysostom (“golden mouthed”) (c. 347-407) by Bishop Flavian of Antioch. 386 AD St. John Chrysostom (c.347-407). “Five Sermons on the Incomprehensibility”. 386 AD Conversion of St. Augustine (354-430) during the summer of 386. He reads the “Life of Antony”. He retires to Cassiacum. 386 AD Death of St. Cyril of Jerusalem (c.315-386). March 18, 386 AD St. Jerome. Settles in a monastery in Bethlehem. 386 AD Saint Jerome. “Commentaries on the Book of Ecclesiastes”. 386 AD Written at Bethlehem. St. Augustine (354-430) of Hippo. “De Beata Vita” (“On the Blessed Life”). 386 AD “Contra Academicos”. 386 AD (“Against the Academics”). “De Ordine” (“On Order”). 386 AD (Divine Providence and the Problem of Evil). Saint Augustine. “Soliloquia”. 386-387 AD (“Soliloquies”) “Epistulae”. 386-429 AD (“Letters”). Riots in Antioch. 387 AD When the conflict between the Christians and the Arians deepens, Magnus Maximus, the usurper, invades Italy despite the pleas of St. Ambrose of Milan not to do so. 387 AD Magnus Maximus engages in battle with Valentinian II. 387 AD St. John Chrysostom. Delivers his sermons on the Statues. 387 AD Baptism of Augustine (354-430) by St. Ambrose of Milan, at Milan, on Easter Eve, 387. 387 AD St. Augustine (354-430). Writes “De Immortalitate Animae”. 387 AD (“On the Immortality of the Soul”). Theodosius I. Eastern Emperor. Partitions Armenia between Rome and Persia. c. 387 AD Death of St. Monica (the mother of St. Augustine) at Ostia. 387 AD Valentinian II and his mother the Empress Justina flee from Italy and seek the aid of Theodosius I, the Eastern Emperor. 388 AD Battle of Aquileia. 388 AD Theodosius I defeats Magnus Maximus, the usurper, at Aquileia. Theodosius has him executed in Pannonia. Theodosius I, the Great, Emperor of the Eastern Empire. Restores Valentinian II as Augustus of the Western Empire. 388 AD St. Jerome. “Questions on Genesis”. 388 AD “Commentaries on Galatians, Ephesians, Titus, Philemon”. 388 AD Both are written while Jerome is at Bethlehem. St. Augustine. Returns to north Africa, Carthage and Tagaste. 388 AD St. Augustine (354-430). “De Quantitate Animae”. 388 AD (“On the Greatness of the Soul”). “De Moribus ecclesiae Catholicae et de moribus Manichaeorum”. (“The Catholic Ways and the Manichaean Ways of Life”). 388, 389-90 AD “De Libero arbitrio voluntatis” (“On the Free Choice of the Will”). Reaffirms the Christian doctrine that man has Free Will. 388, 94-95 AD The Library at Alexandria is almost destroyed during a riot of the pagans against the Christians. 389 AD Death of St. Gregory Nazianzen (c. 329-389) at Nazianus. Jan. 25, 389 AD Gregory is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. Baptism of Saint Paulinus of Nola (c.354-431) by Saint Delphinus of Bordeaux (d.c.403). St. Delphinus is the second bishop of Bordeaux. 389 AD St. Augustine of Hippo. “De Musica” (“On Music”). 389 AD Saint Jerome (c. 342-420). Translates the Old Testament from Hebrew into Latin. He revises the Latin version of the New Testament. This version is called the Vulgata (Vulgate). 390-404 AD He will finish in 404 AD. St. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407). One of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. Begins preaching a series of sermons on the books of the New Testament. Includes eighty-eight on John, ninety on Matthew, and thirty-two on the Book of Romans. 390 AD St. Isaac the Great (d. 439). Appointed Katholicos of Armenia. 390 AD He at once begins to reform the Armenian Church. He is the founder of the Armenian Church. He ends the practice of married bishops, enforces canon law, encourages monasticism, builds churches, builds schools, fights Persian paganism, supports St. Mesrop in his creation of an Armenian alphabet, helps promote the translation of the Old Testament and the New Testament into the Armenian language, helps to promote the translation of the works of the Greek and Syrian doctors into Armenian, is responsible for establishing a national liturgy, and is responsible for the beginnings of Armenian literature. The statue of the pagan god Serapis at Alexandria, Egypt is broken up. 390 AD Jovinian is condemned and excommunicated by Pope Siricius. 390 AD (Jovinian Heresy). Massacre at Thessalonica. 390 AD Massacre of 7,000 people following anti-Roman rebellion at Thessalonica. Theodosius does public penance for several weeks before St. Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan. First “Hallelujah” hymns in the Roman Catholic Church. 390 AD St. Augustine. “De Vera Religione”. 390 AD (“On the True Religion”). The senatorial party at Rome presents a petition to Valentinian II for the restoration of the statue of the pagan goddess of Victory and of the vestal virgins. 391 AD This demand is resisted by the anti-pagan St. Ambrose of Milan. Theodosius I the Great. Under the influence of St. Ambrose of Milan, begins to issue strong edicts against paganism throughout the empire. 391 AD Theodosius I proclaims Christianity the official religion of the empire. All heathen cults are prohibited. Theodosius I forbids all public observances of paganism and heretical movements. Death of Maraius the Great. 391 AD He is also known as St. Macarius the Elder or St. Marius of Egypt. St. Augustine. Attends the church in Hippo and, to his amazement, he is ordained a Catholic priest. 391 AD Saint Jerome (c. 342-420). “Commentaries on the Books of the Minor Prophets”. 391-406 AD Written at Bethlehem. St. Augustine engages Fortunatus, one the leaders of Manichaeanism, in a public debate. Augustine defeats him so soundly that Fortunatus has to leave the city. August 29, 392 AD Frankish Salian and Ripuarian tribes occupy lands between the Meuse and Rhine rivers, as allies of Rome. 392 AD Murder of Valentinian II, Arian emperor of the east, at Vienne in Gaul by Arbogast, a Frankish count. 392 AD Arbogast declares the usurper Eugenius, emperor. Eugenius is the leader of the pagan revival in the Roman empire. Theodosius I. In reaction to the murder of Valentinian II, his 21 year old co-emperor, Theodosius marches against Arbogast and Eugenius of Gaul, the usurper. 392 AD Revival of paganism in Rome and the empire. 392 AD Theodosius I the Great. Forbids all public and private observances of paganism. 392 AD Theodore of Mopsuestia. Greek. Bishop of Mopsuestia. 392-428 AD Influenced Nestorius (Nestorian Heresy/Nestorianism). The Germanic leader of Rome’s Rhineland forces revolts. 392 AD Theodosius I suppresses the barbarian rebellion. Synod of Hippo. 393 AD Saint Jerome. “Adversus Jovianianum.” 393 AD St. Jerome refutes the teachings of Jovinian that Mary had other children besides Jesus (Jovinianism). Saint Paulinus of Nola (c.353-431). While Paulinus of Nola is in Spain, the Bishop of Barcelona, by demand of the people, ordains him a priest. 393 AD Last Greek Olympic Games are held. c.393 AD They are forbidden by Theodosius I because of their pagan nature. Saint Augustine. “De Fide et Symbolo”. 393 AD (“On Faith and the Creed”). Japanese invasion of Korea from Yamato, Japan. 393 AD The Japanese successfully overrun Silla and Paekche in Korea. Theodosius I, the Great, prepares to attack Eugenius of Gaul, the usurper, and the leader of the pagan revival. 394 AD Battle of the Aquileia. Sept. 5-6, 394 AD Theodosius I defeats and kills the pagan leader Eugenius. Eugenius of Gaul, the usurper, is beheaded. Suicide of Arbogast. Theodosius I. Forbids all observances of paganism. 394 AD He issues edicts forbidding sacrifice to pagan idols or for people to even enter the pagan temples. Sulpicius Severus visits St. Martin of Tours aged eighty one. 394 AD Theodosius I the Great. Accedes as Emperor of both the West and the East. 394 AD The entire empire is, for the last time, reunited under Emperor Theodosius (until his death in 395). Death of St. Macarius the Younger. 394 AD He is also known as St. Macarius of Alexandria. Saint Augustine. “Enarrationes in Psalmos.” c.394-418 AD (“Exposition on the Book of Psalms”). “De Sermone Domine in Monte.” 394 AD (“The Lord’s Sermon on the Mount”). “Letters” (Correspondence with St. Jerome). 394-418 AD Death of Theodosius the Great. Jan. 395 AD He is the last Emperor of the unified Roman Empire. Theodosius dies in the arms of Saint Ambrose of Milan. Partition of the Roman Empire. January 17, 395 AD Theodosius is succeeded by his two sons Honorius and Arcadius who divide the empire with Stilichio and Alaric as their masters and protectors. This division marks the separation of the Roman Empire into Western Roman Empire (Rome) and Eastern Roman Empire (“New Rome”) at Constantinople. Honorius (age 10) receives the Western Roman Empire and rules from the city of Rome. Arcadius (age 17) receives the Eastern Roman Empire and rules from the city of Constantinople. Reign of Honorius, Emperor in the West. 395-423 AD Reign of Arcadius, Emperor in the East. 395-408 AD Greece is under the control of the Eastern Empire. 395-1204 AD Roman Palestine is reorganized into three administrative territories. 395 AD Alaric becomes the King of the Visigoths (rules 395-d.410). 395 AD Invasion of Greece by Alaric, king of the Visigoths. Greece is ravaged by the Goths. 395-396 AD St. Ambrose of Milan. Discovers the bodies of St. Nazarius and St. Celsus in Milan. c.395 AD They were both martyrs of the first century. St. Augustine. “Confessiones”. Written. 395-400 AD (“Confessions”). Death of St. Gregory of Nyssa. 396 AD Alaric, the king of the Visigoths, plunders and takes Athens, Corinth, and Greece. 396 AD St. Porphyry (353-420). Proclaimed bishop of Gaza and entrusted with the care of the relics of the Cross of Jesus Christ. 396 AD Stilicho. Vandal general, guardian of Honorius, attacks the Picts in Britain. 396 AD St. Augustine is made Bishop of Hippo Regius in North Africa. 396 AD St. Augustine. “Contra Epistulam Manichaei quam vocant Fundamenti.” 396 AD (“Against the Epistle of Manichaeus Entitled Fundamental”). “De Agone Christiana.” 396 AD (“On the Christian Combat”). Death of St. Geminianus (Italian: Gemignano) of Modena. Exorcist. (b.c.312-d.397). January 31, 397 AD St. Augustine. “De Doctrina Christiana.” 397 AD (“On Christian Doctrine”). The first three books are published in 397. The fourth book will be added in 426. St. Augustine. “Contra Faustum Manichaeum.” 397-398 AD Reply to Faustus the Manichaean. At this point Augustine is anti-Manichaeanism. Death of St. Ambrose of Milan (on Easter Eve). April 4, 397 AD Death of St. Liborius of Le Mans July 23, 397 AD St. Liborius is the second Bishop of Le Mans. Death of St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). November 8, 397 AD He is at Candes, Touraine. Martin is succeeded by Brice as Bishop of Tours (will be bishop 397-444). Alaric, king of the Visigoths, is expelled from Greece, by Stilicho the Vandal leader of the Roman forces. 397 Third Council (Synod) of Carthage. 397 AD St. Jerome. “Commentaries on the Gospel of Saint Matthew”. 398 AD Written while he is at Bethlehem. St. John Chrysostom (c.347-407). One of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. Named Patriarch of Constantinople (398-404) against his wishes. He at once begins to reform the Church at Constantinople. 398 AD Sulpicius Severus. Completes his “Life of Saint Martin of Tours”. 398 AD Reign of Isdegerdes I (Yazdegerd) of Persia. 399-420 AD Later during his rule he will begin severe persecutions of Christians throughout Persia and Armenia. St. Maruthas (d.c. 415). Bishop of Maiferkat, Mesopotamia, near the Persian border. Petitions Emperor Arcadius to ask the newly crowned King Yezdigerd of Persia to mitigate the terrible conditions under which Christians in Persia are forced to live. 399 AD St. Maruthas is sometimes considered the father of the Syrian Church. Maruthas restores Church organization in Persia, builds many churches. He is also known for his knowledge of medicine. Compiles a record of Christians that were martyred in Persia during the persecution of the Christians during the reign of King Sapor. He brings many relics of the martyrs to Maiferkat. He composes several hymns used in the Syriac liturgy and is the author of several theological writings. Saint Augustine. “De Catechizandis Rudibus.” 399 AD (“On the Catechizing of the Uninstructed”). “Ad Catechumenos de Symbolo.” 399 AD (“To the Catechumens on the Creed”). “De Natura Boni contra Manichaeos.” 399 AD (“The Nature of the Good, Against the Manichaeans”). “De Trinitate.” 399-419 AD (“On The Trinity”). Saint Anastasius I. 39th Pope. 399-401 AD Birthplace: Rome. Condemns the Donatist Heresy (Donatism). Birth of Pulcheria (399-453). 399 AD Daughter of Emperor Arcadius, ruler of the East, and Empress Eudoxia. Martyrdom of St. Alban (a Greek from Naxos). 400 AD He is put to death in Roman Germania by the Arians. Death of St. Syncletica. 400 AD Saint Augustine. “De Fide Rerum quae non Videntur.” 400 AD (“On Faith in Things Not Seen”). “De Consensu Evangelistarum.” 400 AD (“On the Harmony of the Evangelists”). Death of St. Fabiola. c.400 AD Founded the first hospital in Roman Christendom. The word “chemistry” is used for the first time by scholars in Alexandria, for the activity of changing matter. c.400 AD Alaric. King of the Visigoths. Invades Northwestern Italy. 401 AD Saint Innocent I. 40th Pope. 401-417 AD Birthplace: Latium, Italy. Reaffirms the ancient primacy of Rome. Saint Augustine. “De Baptismo.” 401 AD (“On Baptism”). “De Opere Monachorum.” 401 AD (“On the Work of Monks”). Battle of Pollentia. April 6, 402 AD Alaric, the king of the Visigoths, undertakes an attack on Italy. Flavius Stilicho collects an army from Gaul, Britain, and Germania. Alaric is beaten back by Flavius Stilicho, the Vandal general of the Western Emperor, at the Battle of Pollenza (Pollentia), near Milan, Italy. The imperial army drove the barbarian Goths into the Alps. Thousands of Goths are killed. Honorius. Ruler of the West. Moves the capitol of the Western Roman Empire to Ravenna, Italy. 402 AD Ravenna becomes the Western capitol. Flavius Stilicho strips the western Roman frontier of forces, in an attempt to contain the Visigoth invasion of Italy. 403 AD This saves Italy but causes the Rhine frontier to begin to collapse. The Vandals, Suebi, and Alans flood across the Rhine frontier. Flavius Stilicho, the Vandal general of the Western Empire, defeats the Ostrogoths under Alaric at Verona temporarily halting their invasion.403 AD Alaric withdraws. St. John Chrysostom (347-407). Deposed. 403 AD He is ordered exiled (404) to the Caucasus in Armenia, by Arcadius, the emperor of the East. Honorius. Ruler of the West. Celebrates the victory over the Goths by reviving the gladiatorial games. The games had been stopped by Constantine the Great, the first Christian Roman emperor, in 325. 404 AD Struck with the horror of the martyrdom of St. Telemachus (Almachius), Honorius, the Emperor of the West, issues an edict banning the games permanently. Driven by the pressure of an eastern invasion upon their forests, a vast horde of Germanic barbarians under Radagasius push into Italy. 200,000 of them are men bearing weapons of war. 404-406 AD Saint Jerome. Translates the Scriptures from Hebrew and Greek in the first Latin or Vulgate (Vulgata) edition. Written at Bethlehem. 404 AD He began in 390 and finished in 404. Battle of Fiesole. August 23, 406 AD Flavius Stilicho annihilates a barbarian (Ostrogothic) invasion under Radagaisus at a battle near Fiesole (Faesulae, Florence). This Germanic barbarian horde swarmed over the Alps. The number of Germanic barbarians is almost 100,000 men. Radagaisus is captured and killed. Gunderic (379-428). King of the Vandals. 406-428 AD The Rhine River freezes over. Dec. 31, 406 AD Across the Rhine River at various points, a vast horde of barbarians, Vandals, Suevi, and Burgundians that are headed by the Alans, swarm into Roman Gaul (406-407). It is estimated that a minimum of 20,000 Vandals alone perished in the winter crossing of the Rhine River. This great barbarian horde sweeps across Europe into north Africa leaving behind a trail of death, misery, destruction, devastation, and confusion in what had once been civilized Gaul under Roman rule. After ravaging the country from end to end, the barbarian hordes pass on into Spain. Founding of the Burgundian kingdom on the Rhine River. 406 AD Capital is Worms. St. Jerome. “Contra Vigilantium.” 406 AD Dictated in one night. St. Augustine. “De Divinatione daemonum.” 406 AD (“On the Divination of Demons”). Hearing of the chaos on the other side of the English Channel in Gaul, the Roman army in Britain, elects one of their number as the new Augustus of the West. The Usurper Flavius Claudius Constantine leads the remains of his army in Britain and enters into Gaul. The last Roman legions are gradually withdrawn from Britannia in order to protect Italy from the barbarian hordes. 407-410 AD The Romano-Britons are left to fend for themselves. The whole of the West is in chaos. 407 AD Roman generals, barbarian chieftains, and peasant insurgents fight one another indiscriminately. First Mongol Empire. Founded by the Avars (to 553). 407 AD Saint Jerome. “Commentaries on the Book of Daniel.” 407 AD Written at Bethlehem. St. John Chrysostomus (347-407). Dies at Comana, Pontus. Sept. 14, 407 AD The Franks forbid the Vandal barbarians to cross the Frankish borders and settle in their territory. 407 AD Execution of Stilicho. 408 AD Roman Emperor Honorius, ruler of the West, suspects Flavius Stilicho of plotting against him. Stilicho is beheaded. Death of Emperor Arcadius, ruler of the East. 408 AD Theodosius II (b.401-d.450). Successor to his father Arcadius, becomes Roman Emperor in the East. Rules 408-450. 408 AD Second Invasion of Italy by the Visigoths. 408 AD Alaric makes his first advance on the city of Rome. Spain. Gerontius, the Roman governor, invites the Alani, Suevi, and Vandals into Roman Spain. 409 AD The Vandals cross the Pyrenees Mountains and enter into Spain. 409 AD Saint Paulinus of Nola (c.354-431). Elected Bishop of Nola. 409 AD Alaric I, the Visigothic chieftain, appears with his army before the gates of Rome for the second time. August 24, 410 AD Conquest and sack of Rome by the Visigoths, a German tribe, under Alaric. Rome now has an enemy within its walls - the first in over 1,100 years since the founding of Rome. Incredibly the pagan Alaric spares the Christian Churches in Rome. End of Roman rule in Britain. 410 AD The Roman troops complete their withdrawal (begun in 407) from Britain and all of the British Isles. Roman troops are sent elsewhere in order to protect the Roman Empire from the invading barbarians. Alaric (d.410), the Visigothic chieftain, moves on after looting Rome. His plan is to advance on Sicily and then to North Africa. He will die however in the same year at Cosenza, Italy. Famine followed by plague in Rome, Italy. Thousands die. 410 AD Death of Alaric, the Visigoth leader at Cosenza in Southern Italy. 410 AD Alaric was on his way further south as part of his plan to cross from Italy into Sicily and then into North Africa. Alaric is buried somewhere in the bed of the Busento River near Cosenza. Alaric is succeeded by Athaulf, his brother-in-law. Ataulphus (Athaulf). King of the Visigoths. 410-415 AD Immediately upon the withdrawal of the Roman troops from Britain, begins the invasion of Britain and the British Isles by the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. c.410 AD These are Germanic tribes from continental Europe. These invasions will continue from 410 until 449. St. Jerome. “Commentaries on the Book of Isaiah.” 410 AD “Commentaries on the Book of Ezekiel.” 410-414 AD Both are written at Bethlehem. St. Augustine. “De Peccatorum meritis et remissione.” 411-412 AD (“On the Forgiveness of Sin and Baptism”). St. Augustine. Begins writing “De Civitate Dei” (“The City of God”). c.412-426 AD Written after the sack of Rome by Alaric the Visigoth in 410 AD. It will take him 14 years to complete this great work. Council at Carthage. 412 AD Condemnation of the Donatist Heresy (Donatism). Condemnation of Celestius, a follower of Pelagius (Pelagianism). Ataulphus leads the Visigoths to settle in southwestern Gaul. 412-415 AD Conquers Narbonne and Toulouse. Makes Toulouse the Visigothic capital. Isdegerdes of Persia. Conquers Armenia. 412 AD Saint Patrick (387-461). Studies at the monastery of Lérins. 412-415 AD Saint Augustine. “De Fide et Operibus.” 412-413 AD (“On Faith and Works”). “De Spiritu et Littera.” 412 AD (“On the Spirit and the Letter”). St. Cyril of Alexandria. Succeeds his uncle Theophilus as Bishop of Alexandria. Oct. 18, 412 AD Gundicar is the first king of Burgundy. 413-436 AD He will die (436) in battle against Attila the Hun. The emperor gives Gundicar (Gundahar), the first King of Burgundy, the right to form a kingdom in the Rhine region, with the capital in what is now called Worms. 413 AD Founding of the kingdom of Burgundy by Gondicar (Gundahar). 413 AD Japan establishes contact with China. 413 AD Saint Augustine. “Tractatus in Joannis Evangelium.” 414-416/417 AD (“Homilies on St. John’s Gospel”). Pulcheria (b.399-d.453), the elder sister of Theodosius II, is named by the senate “augusta” and regent (414-453) of Theodosius in the east. 414 AD Pulcheria takes a vow of virginity and devotes herself to the raising of her brother. Pelagius. British monk. Proclaims his heresy (the Pelagian Heresy or Pelagianism). c.412 His teachings include the denial of Original Sin and the need of Baptism. Teaches that man can achieve righteousness through his own good works. Divine grace is not necessary. St. Jerome (c.342-420). “Dialogi Contra Pelagianos”. In three books. 415 AD Denounces Pelagianism. Saint Augustine. “De Natura et Gratia.” 415 AD (“On Nature and Grace”). “De Perfectione Iustitiae Hominis.” 415-416 AD (“On Man’s Perfection in Righteousness”). “Tractatus in Epistulam Joannis ad Parthos.” 415 AD (“Homilies on St. John’s Epistle to the Parthi”). “Against the Priscillianists and the Origenists”. 415 AD The death of Hypatia at Alexandria, Egypt. 415 AD Wallia. King of the Visigoths. 415-418 AD The Visigoths invade Spain and begin wresting it from the Vandals. 415 AD Conquest of the Vandal Kingdom in Spain by the Visigoths. 416 AD Condemnation of the Pelagian Heresy by the African Bishops. 416 AD Groups of armed Pelagians burn the monasteries at Bethlehem. 416 AD St. Jerome escapes unharmed. Innocent I (Pope). Declares that pronouncements of bishops must be confirmed by the Roman See. 417 AD Death of Pope Innocent I. March 12, 417 AD Saint Zozimus (or Zosimus). 41st Pope. 417-418 AD Birthplace: Greece. Saint Augustine (354-430). “De Correctione Donatistarum.” 417 AD (“The Correction of the Donatists”). Points out the many errors of Donatism (the Donatist Heresy). Paulus Orosius. Latin theologian. “Historiarum libri VII adversus paganos.” c.417 AD (“Seven Books against the Pagans.”) A history of the world up until his own time. Death of St. Zenobius (337-417). May 25, 417 AD Zenobius was the first Bishop of Florence, Italy. Excommunication of Pelagius (Pelagianism). 418 AD Pelagius (the Pelagian Heresy) disappears from the scene after his condemnation by Pope Zozimus. May 418 AD Saint Boniface I. 42nd Pope. 418-422 AD Birthplace: Rome. Reaffirms the condemnation of Pelagius and the Pelagian Heresy (Pelagianism). Saint Augustine (354-430). “De Gratia Christi et peccato originale.” 418 AD (“The Grace of Christ, and on Original Sin”). “De Patientia.” c. 418 AD (“On Patience”). Saint Germanus of Auxerre (c.378-448). Named Bishop of Auxerre. 418 AD Franks settle in parts of Gaul. 418 AD The Goths under Athaulf (Ataulphus) settle in Aquitaine under treaty arrangements. 418 AD Theodoric I. King of the Visigoths. 418-451 AD The Visigoths establish kingdom in Spain. 418 AD The Vandals are forced out of Spain by the Visigoths. Formation of the Visigothic Kingdom of Spain (418-711). 418 AD The Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse dominates the Iberian peninsula. Christianity and Roman culture continue to spread through what is now Spain. St. Augustine (354-430). “De Anima et eius origine.” 419 AD (“On the Soul and Its Origin”). “Contra duas Epistulas Pelagianorum.” 419-420 AD (“Against Two Letters of the Pelagians”). “Questions on the Heptateuch”. 419 AD St. Jerome. “Commentaries on Jeremiah I-XXXII.” 419 AD Written at Bethlehem. Bahram V. King of Persia. 420-438 AD Death of St. Jerome (c. 342-420) at Bethlehem. Sept. 30, 420 AD John Cassian (c. 360-435). “Institutes of the Coenobia”. c.420-427 AD Bahram V, the king of Persia, angered at the destruction of a Mazdean (Zorastrian) temple, unleashes a persecution of Christians throughout the kingdom of Persia. 420 AD Persian War. 420-422 AD Persian persecution of Christians leads to a renewal of war with Rome. Persia will be defeated by the Romans. Martyrdom of St. Hormisdas. Persian. 420 AD Refuses to reject Jesus Christ at the demand of Bahram, the king of Persia. Honorius, ruler of the West, makes Constantius, his brother-in-law, Constantius III, Emperor in the West. 421 AD Constantius dies in September. Theodosius II, ruler of the East, marries Eudocia. 421 AD Theodosius II. Eastern Emperor. Sends an army to fight the Persians. 421 AD Saint Augustine (354-430). “Enchiridion ad Laurentium, seu de Fide, Spe et Caritate.” 421-422 AD (“Enchiridion on Faith, Hope, and Love”). Theodosius II makes peace with Bahram (Varahran), king of Persia.422 AD End of the Persian War. Saint Celestine I. 43rd Pope. 422-432 AD Birthplace: Campania, Italy. Condemns the Pelagian Heresy and will be an unyielding foe of Nestorianism (the Nestorian Heresy). Saint Augustine (354-430). “De VIII Quaestionibus Dulcitii.” 422 AD (“On the Eight Questions of Dulcitius”). Enunciation of Petrine doctrine by Pope St. Celestine I. 422-432 AD St. Prosper of Aquitaine (c.390-c.465). Begins his “Chronicle.” c. 423 AD This work is a universal history from the Creation to the Vandal capture of Rome in 455. Honorius, ruler of the Western Empire, dies at his new capital at Ravenna, Italy. 423 AD Johannes attempts to make himself Roman Emperor in the West. 423 AD Troops of Theodosius II, ruler of the East, kill the usurper Johannes.425 AD Valentinian III, nephew of Honorius, becomes Roman Emperor of the West. Reign of Valentinian III, Western Emperor. 425-455 AD Barbarian tribes settle in Roman provinces. 425 AD The Vandals settle in South Spain, the Huns in Pannonia, the Ostrogoths in Dalmatia, the Visigoths and Suevi in Portugal and North Spain. Founding of the University of Constantinople. 425 AD Saint Augustine. “De Gratia et Libero Arbitrio.” 425 AD (“On Grace and Free Will”). Reaffirms the Christian doctrine that man has Free Will. St. Augustine (354-430). Completes “the City of God”. 426 AD He began this work in 412. St. Lupus is named Bishop of Troyes. c. 426 AD John Cassian (c. 360-435). “Conferences of the Desert Fathers”. c.426-429 AD St. Augustine. “De Correptione et Gratia.” 427 AD (“On Rebuke and Grace”). “Epistola ad Firmum.” c. 427 AD (“Letter to Firmus”). Nestorius is made Patriarch of Constantinople (from 428-431). 428 AD Outbreak of Nestorianism (the Nestorian Heresy). 428 AD Nestorius begins his career of heresy by denying that the Child born of Mary was God. He declares that Jesus Christ was a mere man, conceived and born in the natural way common to man, and that God came and dwelt in Him at a later period in His life. Count Boniface summons the Vandals to north Africa. 428 AD Eudocia, the wife of Theodosius, supports Nestorius and Nestorianism. 428 Pulcheria, sister of Theodosius, maintains the Christian doctrine and eventually convinces Theodosius to reject Nestorius and Nestorianism. The court, convinced by the explanations of Eudocia, causes Pulcheria to be banished from the court. St. Augustine. “De Haeresibus ad Quodvultdeum”. 428 AD (“On the Heresies, to Quodvultdeus”. Genseric (Gaiseric). King of the Vandals. 428-477 AD The Salian Franks begin to take control of Northern France. c.428 AD Vandal conquest of Roman North Africa. 429 AD Pressed by the Goths, the whole Vandal Kingdom with its armies under Genseric (rule: 428-477) depart from Spain. The Vandals cross the Strait of Gibraltar. They invade and conquer North Africa. The Vandals (80,000) overrun all of the western part of the North African coast, looting, burning, and killing. Genseric establishes the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. The Vandal Kingdom in North Africa will last from 429 until 534. St. Germanus of Auxerre (c.378-448) and St. Lupus, Bishop of Troyes, are sent to Britain to combat the Pelagian Heresy (Pelagianism). 429 AD They restore orthodoxy for a while. Death of Saint Honoratus. He dies in the arms of St. Hilary of Poitiers. 429 AD St. Augustine. "Adversus Iudaeos". 429-430 AD ("In answer to the Jews"). "De Praedestinatione Sanctorum" 429 AD ("On the Predestination of the Saints"). "De Dono Perseverantiae". 429 AD ("On the Gift of Perseverance"). Continued migrations of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes from the European Continent, cross the sea, and enter into Britain. 429 AD These invasions began in 410. The Picts and the Scots are driven from southern England. 429 AD The Vandal barbarians progress along the coast of North Africa. 430 AD The Vandals besiege the episcopal city of Hippo Regius, North Africa. Death of St. Augustine (354-430). August 28, 430 AD For fourteen months the city of Hippo Regius is surrounded by the Vandal armies that cut it off from the rest of the world. St. Augustine dies in the third month of the siege at the age of seventy six. He is in full possession of his faculties to the last. St. Augustine was a defender of the Christian Doctrine against Arianism, Gnosticism, Manichaenism, Donatism, and Pelagianism. Pope Celestine I. Holds a synod at Rome. Condemns the Nestorian Heresy (Nestorianism). 430 AD Plague. Britain. 430 AD The plague leaves just enough people alive to bury the thousands of dead bodies. Armenia is divided between the Roman Empire and Persia. 431-440 AD Third Ecumenical Council. The Council of Ephesus. 431 AD Condemnation of Nestorius (Nestorianism). Final anathematization of Pelagianism. Pelagius is removed from his position as the Patriarch of Constantinople. St. Cyril of Alexandria. Presides over the Third General Council at Ephesus. 431 AD Condemns all of the tenets of the heresiarchs Nestorius (the Nestorian Heresy), Pelagius (Pelagianism), and Donatus (Donatism). St. Palladius (d.432). A deacon at Rome, he is consecrated by Pope Celestine I. 431 AD Palladius is sent to Ireland to be the first bishop of Ireland, and to begin the conversion of the people of Ireland from paganism to Christianity. St. Proclus (d.446). Named Patriarch of Constantinople. 431 AD He replaces the Heresiarch Nestorius. Proclus continues his opposition to the doctrines of Nestorius (Nestorianism). St. Mesrop (d. 441). Armenian. St. Mesrop devotes himself to the study of Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Persian, and Syriac. c. 431 AD Mesrop helps compose the Armenian alphabet, translates the New Testament into Armenian, organizes schools in Armenia and Georgia, and creates a Georgian alphabet. He founds his own school in Armenia, and continues teaching until his death at Valarshapat when he is well past eighty years old. Death of St. Paulinus of Nola (c.354-431). June 22, 431 AD Saint Patrick. Arrives in Ireland to become Bishop. 432 AD Patrick labors 30 years converting the natives of the land from paganism to Christianity (432-461 AD). St. Patrick travels the length and breadth of the island meeting fierce opposition from the Druids and hostile chieftains, whom he repeatedly overcomes. Eventually he begins the conversion of the people of the island from paganism (mostly Druidism) to Christianity. Saint Sixtus III. 44th Pope. 432-440 AD Birthplace: Rome. Reaffirms the condemnation of Pelagianism and Nestorianism. Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome. Construction begins. 432 AD Commissioned by Sixtus III. Flavius Aëtius. Becomes the virtual ruler of the Western Roman Empire. 433-454 AD Attila becomes ruler of the Huns with his brother Bleda. 433 AD Attila the Hun begins his advance westward through Europe. 433 AD Attila will rule the Huns until his death in 453. Attila, the "Scourge of God", Hun chieftain. Begins his attacks on Roman provinces. 433 AD Famine and plague throughout Italy. 434 AD Number dead is unknown. Attila the Hun enters into a treaty with Theodosius II, the Eastern Roman Emperor. 434 AD Theodosius II, Eastern Roman Emperor. Agrees to pay tribute to the barbarian Attila the Hun. 434 AD The Vandals capture Tripolitania (Western Libya). 435 AD Flavius Aëtius. Roman general. Rids Gaul of barbarians, defeating the Visigoths. 436 AD Destruction of the Burgundian Kingdom of Worms by Attila the Hun. Gundahar, king of the Burgundians dies in battle 436 AD Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum are lost by the Western Roman Empire to the Eastern Roman Empire. 437 AD Theodosian Code (Codex Theodosianus). 438 AD Theodosius II, Eastern Emperor, systemizes Roman Law for the West and the East. Will be used later in compilation of the Justinian Code. The last Roman troops leave what was once the province of Roman Britain. c. 438 AD St. Secundinus (c. 375-447). Sent from Gaul to assist Saint Patrick in Ireland. 439 AD Fall of Carthage to the Vandals. 439 AD The Vandals in north Africa under Genseric (Gaiseric) capture Carthage. The Vandals make Carthage the capital of the Vandal Kingdom. The Vandal Kingdom in North Africa becomes formally independent of the Roman Empire. 439 AD St. Leo I, the Great (d.461). 44th Pope. 440-461 AD Birthplace: Tuscany, Italy. St. Leo strenuously opposes Arianism, Manichaeanism, Pelagianism, Donatism, Nestorianism, and Priscillianism. Varanes VI rules Persia. 440-457 AD St. Germananus of Auxerre (c.378-448). Returns to Britain to combat Pelagianism (the Pelagian Heresy). c. 440 AD He is again successful, eliminating the heresy. Saxons establish settlements by the Thames estuary in England. c. 441 AD Death of St. Mesrop. Armenian. February 19, 441 AD Eudocia, the wife of Theodosius, is found guilty of infidelity to the Emperor. Eudocia is banished to Jerusalem. Pulcheria is recalled. 441 AD Attila the Hun advances into the Eastern Roman Empire. 441 AD Attila destroys the city of Naissus. 441 AD Attila the Hun, the "Scourge of God ", is in Macedonia and Thrace. 442 AD Theodosius II (b.401-d.450). Emperor of the Eastern Empire. Orders military preparedness and vigilance against an expected attack by the Huns. September 12, 443 AD Burgundian kingdom is established in Upper Rhone and Sâone. 443 AD The Alemanni settle in Alsace, France. 443 AD The Vandals under Genseric (Gaiseric) take the last Roman possessions in Northern Africa. 443 AD Genseric establishes an absolute monarchy. Death of St. Cyril of Alexandria (376-444). June 444 AD Bubonic Plague. Britain. 444 AD Number of thousands dead is unknown. Attila the Hun. Murders his own brother and co-ruler Bleda. 445 AD Attila now becomes the sole ruler of the Huns. Attila, the Hun. Rules from Hungary over Russia, Poland, and Germany. 445-453 AD Attila extorts concessions from Theodosius II. He invades the Balkans and ravages Europe to the walls of Constantinople. Roman-British inhabitants of Britain are attacked by the Anglo-Saxons. They send a plea for help to the Roman Emperor. British are forced out of their homeland and driven across the English Channel into the land of the Armoricans in northern Gaul. 446 AD Leads to the establishment of what today is called Brittany, a province of France. The Britons make a last appeal to Rome to protect them against invasion. Western Emperor tells them that they have to defend themselves. There are no Roman armies in Britain to protect them. 446 AD The Huns capture Roman forts at Ratiaria and Marcianople. 446 AD Death of St. Proclus. July 24, 446 AD Galla Placida erects her famous Mausoleum at Ravenna, Italy. 446 AD Constantinople is struck by a most severe famine. Jan. 27, 447 AD Number of thousands dead is unknown. The Huns defeat the Eastern Roman army at Chersonesus, Greece. Spring 447 AD Attila the Hun attacks the Roman Empire again. 447-450 AD By this time, Attila the Hun has captured all of the Balkans from the Black Sea to the Dardanelles. 447 AD St. Flavian succeeds St. Proclus as Patriarch of Constantinople. 447 AD Merovech (Merovius). 448-457 AD Merovech will powerfully assist in the defeat of Attila the Hun. Merovech will give his name to the first line of French kings (the Merovingian Dynasty). Death of St. Germanus of Auxerre (c. 378-448) at Ravenna. July 31, 448 AD Priscus. 448 AD Accompanies an embassy to the camp of Attila the Hun. The small expedition travels by way of Nish. Priscus writes an account about his visit to the court of Attila the Hun. Eutyches of Constantinople. Presents his doctrines and is condemned. 448 AD His doctrines are called the “Eutychian Heresy” (Eutychianism). This is the Monophysitic Heresy. St. Leo the Great. Dispatches his famous Dogmatic Letter or Tome on the nature of Christ to Flavian. June 449 AD Leo I the Great. Summons a packed council at Ephesus (the "Robber Council" as Leo called it). Aug. 449 AD Theodosius II, emperor of the East, resolves to maintain its decisions despite Leo's desire to reopen the doctrinal question. Theodosius II. Emperor of the East. Supports Eutyches (Eutychianism) and his monophysitism. 449 AD Theodosius II approves the decrees of the Robber Synod of Ephesus. Pulcheria supports the plea of Pope St. Leo to reject the Eutychian Heresy. Expulsion of the Scots and the Picts from southern England by the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes who were originally from the European continent. 449 AD The Jutes under Hengest and Horsa invade and conquer Kent in southern England. 449 AD Completion of the invasion and conquest of Britain by the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes that had come from the continent. 449 AD Their Invasion of Britain had begun in 410 AD. Anglo-Saxon Period in Britain. 449-1066 AD Will end in the year 1066. Theodosius II, emperor of the East, is killed in a fall from his horse while he is hunting. His sister, Pulcheria, is proclaimed Empress. 450 AD Pulcheria marries Marcion, with the condition that he respect her virginity. Marcion (Marcianus) succeeds Theodosius II as Eastern Roman Emperor. Marcion marries Pulcheria, the sister of Theodosius II. 450 AD Marcianus (Marcion) rules: 450-457. Marcion agrees to reopen the problem of the doctrinal issues of the Robber Council of Ephesus of 449. Merovech (Merovius). King of the Salian Franks. 450-457 AD Founds the Merovingian Dynasty. Marcion, the Eastern Roman Emperor, and Valentinian III, the Western Roman Emperor both refuse to pay Attila the Hun the tribute that he demands. 450 AD Attila the Hun attacks Italy. 450 AD Death of St. Peter Chrysologus ("golden worded") (406-450), at Imola, Italy. July 31, 450 AD Famine. Italy. 450 AD Fourth General (Ecumenical) Council. October 8, 451 AD The Council of Chalcedon. Called by Pope Leo I the Great. The council is sponsored by Marcion (the Eastern Emperor) and Pulcheria. More than 500 Bishops are present. End of the long struggle against Monophysitism (also called Eutychianism). Monophysitism denies the humanity of Jesus Christ, holding that Christ had only one nature, the divine nature. The Monophysite Heresy is therefore condemned on the grounds that it ignores the humanity of Jesus Christ. Council condemns the Monophysite “Robber Synod” of Ephesus (449). The Council reaffirms that Jesus Christ is true God and true man at the same time (100% God and 100% man). Pulcheria attends the third session which condemns Monophysitism. The Nestorian Heresy is condemned and rejected once again. The schism of the Egyptian, Armenian, Ethiopian, and Syrian Monophysite churches stems from the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon of 451. The monophysites reject the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon. Death of the great Heresiarch Nestorius of Constantinople. 451 AD The Coptic Church in Egypt adheres to Monophysitism. The Egyptian church separates from the Roman Catholic Church. 451 AD Pope Leo I, in a letter to Pulcheria, credits her with helping to overcome the Nestorian and Eutychian heresies and for the recall of the Christian bishops who had been exiled by Theodosius II (d.450). 451 AD Attila the Hun declares war on the Western Roman Empire. 451 AD The Huns, a pagan, savage, and barbarian horde of invaders from the plains of central Asia, prepare to attack Gaul. 451 AD Attila the Hun, at this time has an army of more than 500,000 barbarians. Attila the Hun invades Gaul. 451 AD Moving through Gaul, Attila the Hun destroys the country side and massacres much of the population. 451 AD Attila the Hun lays siege to the city of Orleans. 451 AD Attila the Hun destroys the city of Metz. April 7, 451 AD St. Genevieve (c. 422-500). Prophesizes that Attila and his Huns will bypass the city of Paris. 451 AD After she leads a crusade of prayer with the citizens, the city of Paris is left unmolested by the Huns. Flavius Aëtius, commander of the armies of the Western Empire, allies himself with Theodoric I, son of Alaric, and king of the Visigoths. 451 AD Flavius Aëtius, accompanied by Theodoric I, arrives at the city of Orleans, defeats Attila the Hun, and saves the city of Orleans from destruction. Attila retires to the plain of Moirey. 451 AD Battle of Châlons. June 451 AD (This battle is also called the Battle of the Catelaunian Fields) near Châlons (Troyes). Attila the Hun is defeated by an alliance of Romans, Visigoths, Franks, and Allemani led by the Roman general Flavius Aëtius at the Battle of Châlons in Champagne. Over 250,000 men are killed on both sides in this battle. Attila the Hun flees but Aëtius does not give chase. Europe is saved from Attila the Hun, “the Scourge of God”. Theodoric I, who fell in the Battle of Châlons, is succeeded by his son Thorismond (also Thorismund). Thorismond is King of the Visigoths. 451-453 AD Attila the Hun, repulsed at the Battle of Châlons in Gaul, retreats across the Rhine River back into Hungary. 451 AD Attila now prepares to invade Italy. Attila the Hun overruns and ravages Northern Italy. 451-452 AD He burns Aquileia and Padua, and loots the city of Milan. Everywhere, Attila and the Huns leave a path of unimaginable death and destruction behind them. Attila the Hun. Announces from Milan his intention of conquering Rome itself. 452 AD Helpless to prevent the conquest by military force, the emperor abdicates his responsibility to Pope Leo I the Great. Attila the Hun advances on Rome with his huge barbarian armies. 452 AD Pope Saint Leo I the Great. 452 AD Dissuades Attila the Hun from destroying Rome in a face-to-face meeting at Peschiera. Rome is saved from the Huns. Traditional date for the founding of the city of Venice. 452 AD Venice is founded by refugees that seek refuge from the armies of Attila the Hun. Death of Attila the Hun on his wedding night. 453 AD His army breaks up. The Huns raise the siege and leave Italy. The Huns dissolve into the surrounding populations. The empire of the Huns will vanish out of history with their withdrawal from Europe in 469. Death of St. Pulcheria (399-453). July 453 During her life, she built many Christian churches, hospitals, and hospices. She encouraged the building of a university in Constantinople, which is where she died. Theodoric rebels against his brother and predecessor, Thorismund and has him killed. 453 AD Theodoric II, King of the Visigoths. 453-466 AD The Ostrogoths settle in Pannonia and Moesia. c. 454 AD Death of Eutyches. 454 AD Heresiarch (founder) of the Eutychian Heresy (Eutychianism). Valentinian III, Roman emperor in the West, kills Aëtius. Sept. 454 AD Valentinian III, Roman Emperor in the West, is murdered. 455 AD Petronius Maximus is emperor in the west (455 only). Sack of Rome by the Vandals. June 455 AD The Vandals come by ships to sack the city of Rome. Rome is seized, sacked, and pillaged by the Vandal barbarians under Genseric (Gaiseric). The Vandals plunder Rome for two weeks (June 2-16). The Vandals cross over into Sicily and set up a kingdom in West Sicily which will endure there until 534 AD. Avitus. Roman Emperor of the West. 455-456 AD Ricimer, leader of the Goths from Central Germany, in Roman service, is the virtual ruler of the Western Empire. 455-475 AD Ricimer. Roman general of Germanic (Suevian) origin. Defeats the Vandal barbarians. 456 AD Battle of Aylesford. 456 AD Jutish Invasion of England. The Jutes under Hengist and Horsa defeat the Britons under Vortigern. Horsa is killed in battle. Battle of Crayford. 456 AD The Jutes under Hengist defeat the Britons under Vortigern. The Britons are defeated and driven out of Kent. Hengist (Jute). Founds the kingdom of Kent in England. 456 AD The Britons are defeated and driven out of Kent, England. They settle in Bretagne. 456 AD Majorian. Emperor in the West. 456-461 AD St. Sabbas (439-532). 456 AD Goes to Jerusalem and there enters a monastery under St. Theoctistus. Leo I. Eastern Roman Emperor. 457-474 AD Childeric conquers to the Loire River, including Paris. 457 AD Childeric I is King of the Salian Franks. 457-481 AD Saint Remigus (also known as Remi, c.437-530). Appointed Bishop of Rheims. Remi is only twenty two years old. 459 AD Death of St. Simeon Stylites the Elder (c.388-459). Sept. 2, 459 AD Capture of Cologne by the Franks. 460 AD Destruction of the Roman fleet off Cartagena by the Vandals. 460 AD Death of Pope Leo I, the Great. November 10, 461 AD Saint Hilary (or St. Hilarius). 47th Pope. 461-468 AD Birthplace: Sardinia. Election of a Monophysite (Monophysitism) to the eastern patriarchate of Antioch. 461 AD Livius Severus. Western Roman Emperor. 461-465 AD Death of St. Patrick of Ireland. March 17, 461 AD During his 30 years in Ireland, he raised the standards of education, encouraged the study of Latin, and began the conversion of the Irish people from paganism to Christianity. The Burgundians, a Germanic tribe, make Lyon their capital. 461 AD Founding of the famous Studios Monastery. 463 AD Council at Rome. 465 AD Disastrous fire in Constantinople. 465 AD Death of St. Prosper of Reggio. June 25, 466 AD He ruled as the bishop of Reggio in the province of Emilia, Italy for 22 years. Leo I, Eastern Emperor, has Anthemius, elected Emperor of the West. 467 AD Anthemius. Western Roman Emperor. 467-472 AD Leo I, the emperor of the East, and Anthemius, the emperor of the West, assemble a fleet of over 1000 ships in order to attack the Vandal kingdom in North Africa. 467 AD The Huns invade Dacia. 466 AD Leo I, Emperor of the Eastern Empire, beats them off with the aid of generals Anagastus and Anthemius. Euric the Visigoth. Murders his brother Theodoric II, King of the Visigoths (453-466). Euric becomes the King of the Visigoths (rules 466-484). 466 AD Conquest of Spain by the Visigoths. 466 AD Reign of Euric, who established the Visigothic kingdom in Spain. The Visigothic kingdom extends from the Loire River to Southern Spain. Famine. England. 466 AD Number of thousands dead is unknown. Saint Simplicius. 48th Pope. 468-483 AD Birthplace: Latium, Italy. He re-affirms the condemnation of the Monophysite Heresy (Monophysitism). Flood. Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Empire. 469 AD Four days of continuous rain flood the city. Uncounted hundreds are killed. The East Romans under Basiliscus attack the Vandals in Africa. 468 AD Genseric (Gaiseric) defeats them off Cape Bon (in modern Tunisia). Leo I, Emperor of the East. Fends off another invasion of Dacia by the Huns. 468 AD Codex Euricanus. 470 AD Composition of the oldest Germanic code of law. It is written in Latin under the direction of Euric, King of the Visigoths. By this time, the White Huns have almost completely destroyed the Gupta Empire in India. Disintegration of the Gupta Kingdom. c.470 AD The White Huns dominate northern India. Death of Dengizik, the Hunnic king (Attila’s second son). 469 AD Withdrawal of the Huns from Europe. 469 AD The Huns vanish from history. Their disappearance is not mourned. Raid of Epthalites into India. 470 AD First detailed records of Japanese history. 470 AD Theodoric the Great (d.526). Becomes king of the Ostrogoths. Theodoric rules 471-526. 471 AD He will become king of all of Italy in 493. The Goths attack the approaches to Constantinople. The attack is called off as Zeno, Leo’s son-in-law, has Ardaburius, the leader of the Goths killed. 471 AD Anthemius, Western Emperor, is killed by Ricimer, the barbarian general. Ricimer appoints Olybrius. 472 AD Olybrius. Western Roman Emperor. 472 AD Ricimer dies. Gundobad, the Burgundian, takes control of the army of the Western Empire. 472 AD Olybrius dies. Western Empire is left without an emperor. 472 AD Much of Europe is covered with ash from the Vesuvius volcano. 472 AD Death of Saint Euthymius the Great (c.378-473). January 20, 473 AD Gundobad, the Burgundian, names Glycerius as the Western Roman Emperor. 473 AD Glycerius. Western Roman Emperor (473-474 AD). At the instigation of Leo I, the ruler of the East, Julius Nepos marches on Rome. 474 AD Julius Nepos removes Glycerius, and makes himself Emperor of the West. Julius Nepos. Western Roman Emperor (474-475 AD). Leo I of the Eastern Empire dies. Leo I is succeeded by Zeno. 474 AD Reign of Zeno. Eastern Roman Emperor. 474-491 AD Orestes, Roman commander, expels Julius Nepos, the western emperor, and names his son, Romulus Augustulus, Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. 475 AD Reign of Romulus Augustulus. 475-476 AD Romulus Augustulus is the last Roman Emperor of the West. Euric, leader of the Visigoths, declares independence. 475 AD Writings of Dionysius Areopagita. 475-525 AD The northern end of Europe is visited by a plague of locusts. 475 AD Crops are destroyed. Famine follows. Number of thousands of deaths is unknown. Proclus (c.410-485). Neo-Platonist philosopher. Becomes head of the Platonic Academy at Athens. 476 AD Battle of Pavia. August 476 AD Odoacer, Germanic chieftain, defeats the forces defending the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, at Pavia, in northern Italy. Zeno, the Eastern Roman Emperor, is forced to abdicate by Basiliscus. Basiliscus takes the eastern throne (Jan. 9, 475-August 476). 476 AD Basiliscus, a Monophysite pretender, usurps the East Roman throne. He deposes Zeno the Isaurian. Zeno, however, will be restored in 477. Basiliscus, the Pretender, is supported by the Monophysites, who had rejected the Council of Chalcedon (451). The Monophysites, of course, recall all of the monophysite bishops. In August 476, Zeno besieges Constantinople. Aug. 476 AD Basiliscus, the usurper, flees into the Hagia Sophia. Basiliscus, surrenders after extracting a promise from Zeno that he will not shed his blood. Basiliscus is sent to Cappadocia, where Zeno orders that he be enclosed in a dry cistern. He will die there from exposure. Genseric, the Vandal, concludes a treaty with Zeno, the Eastern Emperor. Zeno recognizes Vandal rule over all of western Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands. 476 AD Fall of the Roman Empire. Sept. 4, 476 AD This is the traditional date of the fall of the Roman Empire. Odoacer (433-493), Germanic leader of the Herulii and Rugii, deposes Romulus Augustulus and is the first “barbarian” ruler of Italy. Odoacer founds the Kingdom of Italy. With the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman Emperor of the west, by Odoacer, the Western Roman Empire ceases to exist. Odoacer informs Constantinople that there is no emperor in the West. Odoacer is recognized as the head of the Western Empire by Zeno, the emperor of the Eastern Empire. Previously under Roman rule, the Eastern Empire continues to survive. This event marks the start of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire will continue from 476 until it is finally destroyed by the moslems in the year 1453. The Byzantine Empire survives for 977 years until 1453. Genseric (Gaiseric), the King of the Vandals, cedes Sicily, with the exception of the city of Lilybaeum, to Odoacer, the Germanic chieftain, that has deposed the last Roman Emperor of the West. This is in exchange for an annual tribute to Odoacer. 476 AD

Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) in the Near East. 7000-5600 BC “Neolithic Revolution”. Beginning of settled life. 7000-6500 BC Walled settlement at Jericho. c.7000 BC Earliest Neolithic culture in Southern Italy, Sicily, and Liguria. c. 6000 BC Chalcolithic Period (Copper-Stone Age). First metalwork. 5600-3500 BC Beginning of the Sumerian civilization. c. 5000 BC First settlements in the fertile river valleys of Sumer. Northern Mesopotamia. Appearance of the brilliant Tell Halaf pottery. c. 5000 BC Sumerians arrive in Southern Mesopotamia. 4500 BC The Sumerians are of unknown origin. The Sumerians settle in Southern Mesopotamia. 4500-2800 BC Mesopotamia means the land between the rivers. Sumerian Al’Ubaid period in Southern Mesopotamia. c. 4500 BC Begins with the appearance of painted pottery and a simple agricultural economy in the area. Sumerian Al’Ubaid culture in Southern Mesopotamia. Well developed urban life. c. 4260-2750 BC Earliest exactly dated year in history. 4241 BC Recorded date in the ancient Egyptian calendar. Farmers living along the Danube River in villages design stone replicas of their deities. c. 4000 BC First year of the Jewish calendar. 3760 BC Beginning of the Bronze Age in Mesopotamia. 3500 BC Tools are made of bronze. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Beginning of pictogram writing in early Mesopotamia. 3500 BC First phonetic writing. The Sumerian civilization in Lower Mesopotamia is considered by many ancient historians to be the first great civilization of mankind. “White Temple” on Ziggurat. Uruk (Warka). c. 3200 BC Beginning of ideogram writing in early Mesopotamia. c. 3200 BC The Sumerians develop cuneiform writing. c. 3200-3100 BC Beginning of phonogram writing (syllables) in early Mesopotamia. Temple of Uruk is built in Sumeria. c. 3100 BC Upper and Lower Egypt are united by Menes (Narmer), the first Pharaoh of the first dynasty. Menes built his capital at Memphis. c. 3100 BC Kish, which was situated near modern Baghdad, becomes the leading Sumerian city during the reign of King Etana. c. 3000 BC The “Great Deluge”. c. 3000 BC The Old Testament (Jewish) account corresponds with the later written Gilgamesh Epic. The Bronze Age culture begins, in Europe, in the Aegean and Greece. ca. 3000 BC Meskiaggasher founds dynasty in Erech. ca. 2800 BC This dynasty begins to rival Kish. Rise of Kingship in Sumeria. 2800 BC Rise of early Helladic culture on the mainland of Greece (central Greece and the Peloponnesus). 2800-2100 BC Bronze Age culture in Melos and other islands of the Cyclades. Early Cycladic. 2800-2200 BC Royal burials at Ur. 2750-2650 BC Gilgamesh. Sumerian. Reigns as king of Uruk (Erech). ca. 2750 BC Gilgamesh builds walls around Uruk. The Gilgamesh epic. c. 2750 BC Kingship becomes hereditary in Sumeria. 2700 BC Third Egyptian Dynasty. c. 2600 BC Imhotep. Builds stepped pyramid in early Egypt. 2600 BC The Great Sphinx is built. ca. 2550 BC Early Minoan Period. 2600-2200 BC Beginning of the Cretan civilization on Crete (until c.1400 BC). Knossus (Cnossus) is the leading city on Crete. Cretan civilization spreads to the Aegean Islands. Fourth Egyptian dynasty. c. 2550 BC Celts, who overran western Europe, ride horses, carry iron weapons, and are ruled by Druids, a priestly class. 2500-1200 BC Eannatum of Lagash, a great warrior, defeats the Sumerian cities of Ur in the south and Kish in the north. Extends his power into Elam as far as Mari. ca. 2450 BC Eannatum makes the Sumerian city state of Lagash supreme. Urakgina takes power in Lagash. ca. 2400 BC Institutes the first known social reforms in history. Reign of the Pharaoh Cheops (also known as Khufu). 2589-2566 BC The Great Pyramid of Pharaoh Cheops (Khufu), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, is completed in Gizeh. ca. 2560 BC Reign of Chephren. 2558-2533 BC Lugalannemundu, King of Adab. Briefly unites the Sumerian city states. 2500 BC Following his death, the city states will fight each other for about 200 years. The Assyrians settle at the Upper Tigris and Greater Zab rivers. c. 2500 BC The capital Assur, and the country received their names from Assur, the chief god of the Assyrians. Beginning of the Indus valley civilization of northern India. c.2400 BC A sophisticated culture thrived and cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were built with courtyard houses. Sargon of Akkad conquers Sumer (Sumeria). 2370 BC Sargon I the Great (2360-2305) of Akkad. 2350-2300 BC Period of Akkadian dominance. Sargon conquers Mesopotamia, parts of Syria and Asia Minor, and Elam. Sargon the Great rules over the vast empire in Mesopotamia. Founds Agade in Akkad and builds his capital there. Builds beautiful temples and palace. Middle Minoan Period. 2200-1550 BC The cities of Crete reach their maximum expansion. Middle Cycladic Period. 2200-1650 BC Egypt fragments with dynasties in rival capitals. ca. 2200 BC Hsia Dynasty of China. c.2200-c.1776 BC First historic Chinese dynasty. Horses are domesticated and rice and millet are cultivated. Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Reunites Egypt. c. 2200 BC The Gutians, from what is modern day Iran, conquer Sumeria. They destroy Agade, and rule Sumeria. ca. 2180-2080 BC Aryan invasion of India. c.2150 BC The Aryans, a Sanskrit speaking people from Central Asia, invade India and destroy the Indus valley civilization. Egypt expands its territory southward. 2133-1786 BC Engages in extensive foreign trade. Reign of Ur-Nammu of Sumeria. 2113-2096 BC Ur-Nammu, Sumerian ruler. Builds the Ziggurat of Ur. 2112 BC Ur-Nammu founds the last Sumerian dynasty and promulgates law code, the oldest code of laws known. ca. 2112 BC Middle Helladic culture. 2100-1550 BC Gudeans are driven out of Sumaria, by Utu-Hegal, King of Erech (Uruk). The Sumerians are restored back to power. 2050 BC Abraham, the son of Terah. Leaves Ur in Chaldea (Ur of the Chaldees). ca. 2100 BC End of Sumerian rule. Invasion of Amorites and Elamites. 2000 BC The Elamites destroy Ur, marking the end of Sumerian dominance in Mesopotamia. The Mycenaeans enter Greece from the north. c. 2000 BC The Hebrews live as nomadic shepherds in Canaan. 2000-1700 BC Settlement of the Hittites in Anatolia in Asia Minor. 2000 BC Founding of the first Hittite Kingdom. Fall of the Sumerian Empire to the Amorites and Gutians. 1950 BC Egypt conquers lower Nubia. 1950 BC Entrance of Abraham, son of Terah, into Canaan. ca. 1900 BC Arrival of Indo-European peoples on the Greek mainland. 1900 BC Start of the first Babylonian Empire. c. 1900 BC Stonehenge. ca. 1900-1400 BC A massive stone complex used for religious purposes, is built on Salisbury Plain, England. Babylonian mathematics. ca. 1900 BC Reaches its high level with a numbering system that is based upon the developed sexagesimal system with a place value notation for both whole numbers and fractions. Also surviving are tables of squares, of square roots, of cubes, cube roots, and of the sums of squares and cubes. Minoan culture in Crete. ca. 1800-1700 BC Founding of Thebes, Greece. ca. 1800 BC The Old Assyrian Empire. 1800-1375 BC Hammurabi ascends the throne of Babylonia. 1792 BC Hammurabi rules the western Semitic Kingdom of Babylonia. Hammurabia rules Canaan. ca. 1792-1750 BC Shang Dynasty in northern China. c.1766-1122 BC Hammurabi writes code of laws. Law Code of Hammurabi is carved into stele. 1755 BC Egypt is invaded, conquered, and then ruled by the Hyksos. The Hyksos, a Semitic people, probably came from Canaan. They introduced horse drawn chariots. ca. 1730-1570 BC Jacob, the son of Isaac, enters into Egypt. ca. 1700 BC Late Cycladic Period. 1650-1300 BC Beginning of Achaean ascendancy. 1650-1500 BC Old Kingdom of the Hittites. c. 1650-1500 BC A volcano explodes on the Minoan island of Thera, near Akrotiri, Greece. This explosion is twice as violent as that of Krakatoa. 1628 BC Destroys Minoan cities. This explosion brings about the abrupt transition from the Minoan culture to the Mycenaean culture. Reign of Mursilis I, King of the Hittites. 1620-1590 BC First beginnings of Phoenician cities. 1600-1200 BC Mursilish I, King of the Hittites, defeats Halpa (Aleppo). c. 1595 BC Mursili I, King of the Hittites (also called Kassites). Babylon and Babylonian dynasty is destroyed by the Hittites. 1595 BC The Hittites came from what will later be known as Anatolia and Syria. Beginning of the Mycenaean civilization. 1580 BC Mycenaeans, a Greek speaking people, settle in Greece. Mycenaeans establish a flourishing civilization, and trade with Crete. Reign of Amosis I. 1570-1546 BC New Kingdom in Egypt. The Hyksos kings are expelled by Amosis I. ca. 1570-1085 BC Egyptian power and civilization reaches its height. Egypt conquers Nubia. 1560 BC Late Helladic culture. 1550-1100 BC Late Minoan Period. 1550-1100 BC Decline sets in. Reign of Amenhotep I (son of Amosis I). c. 1541-1520 BC Reign of Thutmosis I, Pharaoh of Egypt. 1520-1492 BC The Birth of Moses. c.1520 BC Thutmosis I of Egypt penetrates to the Euphrates Valley. 1520-1512 BC Middle Kingdom of the Hittites. c.1500-1420 BC Mitanni kingdom of Hurrians (known as the Horites in the Old Testament) rule much of Mesopotamia and Assyria. ca. 1500 BC Linear B script exists in Crete, indicating evidence of Mycenaean influence on the language of Crete. ca. 1500 BC The Hellenic invasion of Greece. ca. 1500-1000 BC The Palace of Minos. Knossos, Crete. ca. 1500 BC Reign of Thutmosis III of Egypt. 1480-1448 BC Under him, Egypt experiences its greatest territorial expansion. Rules from the Euphrates River to the 4th Cataract of the Nile River. Battle of Megiddo. 1479 BC Egyptians under Thutmose III of Egypt, defeat a Confederation of Palestinian states in northern Israel. Egypt conquers Syria and part of Mesopotamia. Reign of Hatshepsut in Egypt. 1479-1458 BC Temple of Hatshepsut. Egypt. ca. 1460 BC Destruction of the Minoan culture. 1450-1375 BC The destruction of the palace of Knossos by fire occurred during an unsuccessful revolt of the Cretan population against their new masters from Mycenae (the Mycenaeans). The Exodus. Moses leads the Jews out of Egypt. c.1446 BC Definitive establishment of Achaean dominance of Crete. ca. 1425 BC New Hittite Kingdom. c.1420-1190 BC Reign of Amenhotep (Amenophis) III. 1417-1379 BC Marks the beginning of the downfall of Egyptian power. The Death of Moses. c. 1406 BC Joshua succeeds Moses as the leader of the Jews. The Mycenaeans gain supremacy of the Mediterranean. ca. 1400 BC Mycenae, located in the northern Peloponnesus, becomes the major ancient city following the collapse of Knossus (the Minoans). Middle Assyrian Empire. 1375-1047 BC Assyrian law during this period called for some terrible forms of punishment. These included blinding, severance of ears, nose, lips, fingers and toes, castration, amputation of arms and legs, and the destruction of faces by the application of boiling asphalt. Reign of Amenhotep (Amenophis) IV. 1352-1336 BC Amenhotep (Amenophis) IV changes his name to Akhenaton. ca. 1350 BC Married to Nofretete, Akhenaton attempts to introduce in Egypt the worship of Aton, or the Sun. Founding of the city of Corinth (Greece). 1350 BC Height of expansion of the Hittite Empire. 1350 BC Reign of Tutenkhamen, son-in-law of Akhnaton. c. 1332-1324 BC Restores polytheism in Egypt. Reign of Rameses I of Egypt. 1319-1290 BC Reign of Rameses II of Egypt. 1304-1237 BC Ramses II, ruler of Egypt. 1300-1290 BC Completes the temples of Karnak, Thebes, Luxor, and Abu-Simbel. Battle of Kadesh (in modern day Syria). 1288 BC (Part of Egyptian-Hittite Wars). Egyptian armies under Rameses II lose a major battle to the HIttites led by Mursilish II, at Kadesh in Syria. Fought for mastery of Syria. Both sides claim the victory. Ramses II of Egypt makes peace with the Hittites. 1283 BC Shalmaneser I becomes ruler of Assyria. 1275 BC The Phoenicians flourish on the coasts of Syria and Lebanon. c. 1250 BC The Phoenicians establish the city states of Tyre and Sidon. Phoenicians begin to colonize the Mediterranean coast. The Israelites conquer and enter into Canaan (Palestine). ca. 1250 BC Crossing of the Jordan River by the Israelites. c. 1250 BC The Israelite league is victorious in a battle fought in the Esdraedon Valley. The victory is celebrated in the Song of Deborah (Judges 5). ca. 1235 BC Merneptah leads Egyptian army in campaign against Israel in Palestine (first mention of the tribe of Israel in the Israel Stele) and against the Libyans, who were allied with the Sea Peoples (Greeks, Philistines). ca. 1234-1220 BC Trojan War. ca. 1203- c. 1193 BC The Greeks led by Agamemnon, Achilles, and Odysseus (Ulysses) lay siege to the ancient city of Troy. Troy will ultimately fall to the Greeks (c. 1193 BC). The Latins, an Indo-European speaking Italic people from Central Europe, cross the Alps, invade Italy, and settle in Central Italy. ca. 1200 BC Dorian (North Greeks) invaders from the north, begin to invade Greece. Devastation of Achaean cities. 1200 BC 20th Dynasty in Egypt. 1200-1090 BC The League of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. ca. 1200 BC The period of the Judges of Israel. 1200-1020 BC Destruction of the Hittite Empire and other near eastern civilizations by invaders (the “Sea Peoples”). c. 1200 BC The Fall of Troy. 1193 BC Troy, in Asia Minor, falls to Greek armies after a ten year siege (according to Homer). Traditional date for the destruction of the city of Troy. Rameses III becomes ruler of Egypt. 1188 BC Egyptian delta. c. 1188 BC Invasion of Egypt by confederation of “Sea Peoples”. These include Greeks, Philistines, Sardinians, and Sicilians. The “Sea Peoples” are defeated by Rameses III. Rameses III defeats an armada of invading “Peoples of the Sea”. Egyptian independence is preserved. The Philistines are pushed back from Egypt. 1180 BC Gideon and the Midianites. c. 1169 BC Sack of Babylon and overthrow of Kassite power by the Elamites. 1160 BC The Dorians (Northern Greeks) conquer Crete. 1150 BC Greeks settle on the Ionian coast of Asia Minor. 1150-1000 BC Phoenicians found their first north African colony at Utica located in what is modern day Tunisia. 1140 BC Nebuchadnezzar I, King of Babylon. 1125-1116 BC Chou Dynasty of China. 1122-480 BC Overthrows the Shang Dynasty. Tiglath-Pileser I. Ruler of Assyria. 1116-1077 BC Founds the Assyrian Empire. Fortifies it against migrating peoples from the north. Will conquer Babylon. The Babylonians defeat the Elamites. 1100 BC 21st Dynasty in Egypt. 1090-945 BC Civil war under Ramses XI. Israel is conquered by the Philistines. ca. 1070 BC The central shrine of the League of Israel at the Battle of Shiloh is destroyed. The Ark of the Covenant is taken by the Philistines. Samuel, the last of the Judges of Israel. He is forced to institute kingship in Israel at the insistence of the twelve tribes of Israel. ca. 1043 BC Saul is anointed the first King of Israel. Reign of King Saul of Israel. ca. 1043-1010 BC Saul leads Israel in the struggle against the Ammonites. ca. 1042 BC Saul defeats the Ammonites. Philistines invade central Palestine. 1041 BC Saul, King of Israel, is at war against the Philistine invaders. At the end of his reign, Saul is defeated by the Philistines at the catastrophic Battle of Gilboa on the plain of Jezreel. ca. 1010 BC Saul, King of the Jews, commits suicide by falling on his own sword. David, King of the Jews. ca. 1010 BC On the death of King Saul, David is anointed King of the Jews at Hebron. Reign of David, King of the Jews (kingdom of Judah). David defeats the Philistines and begins to unite Israel. ca.1010-ca.970 BC Although David is anointed King of Israel, for 7 ½ years he rules only the southern Kingdom of Judah. Ishbaal, son of Saul, rules briefly in the northern kingdom of Israel. Thereafter David will rule all of Israel both northern and southern kingdoms. David captures Jerusalem (c. 1000 BC) and makes it the religious and political capital of Israel. David returns the Ark of the Covenant (1000 BC) and the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) to the city. David reigns over all of Israel (north and south). c. 1003 BC Teutonic tribes settle in northern Europe. c. 1000 BC The Phoenicians dominate the seas. 1000-774 BC The Phoenicians probably sailed to Cornwall, England, for tin and sailed down the west coast of Africa. The Birth of Solomon, the son of David. c. 990 BC Hyram (Hiram) I is King of the Phoenician city of Tyre. c. 969-936 BC David is succeeded by Solomon, his son by Bathsheeba. Solomon rules Israel. ca. 970-ca. 933 BC Solomon, King of the Jews. Completes the Temple of Jehovah at Jerusalem. ca. 966 BC Tiglath-Pileser II. King of Assyria (rules for 32 years). 966-935 BC Hiram I builds the fortified city of Tyre. c. 950 BC The Queen of Sheba visits Solomon, King of Israel. c. 946 BC 22nd Dynasty of Egypt. 945-745 BC Begins with Sheshonk I (rules 945 to 918 BC). The Death of Solomon, King of Israel. ca. 933 BC Immediately upon the death of King Solomon, rebellion follows the accession of his son Rehoboam. ca. 933 BC The Kingdom of Israel is divided into a southern kingdom (Judah, with its capital at Jerusalem) under Rehoboam (to c. 915 BC), the son of King Solomon. The northern kingdom (Israel with its capital at Shechem, later Tirzah and Pneul, then Samaria) is under Jeroboam I (to 912 BC), also the son of Solomon. Reign of Jeroboam I, First King of Israel. c. 933-912 BC Civil war between Rehoboam, King of Judah, and Jeroboam I, King of Israel. 933-915 BC The Kingdom of Israel (the Northern Kingdom). 933-722 BC The Dynasty of Jeroboam I (ca. 933-901), of the Kingdom of Israel. Jeroboam is the son of Solomon. 933-900 BC The Kingdom of Judah (the southern kingdom). 933-586 BC Reign of Rehoboam, first King of Judah. ca. 933-915 BC Rehoboam is the son of Solomon. Shoshenq I of Egypt (called Shishok in the Old Testament) proceeds with his army out from the Egyptian delta. 918 BC The civil war between Rehoboam and Jeroboam I is broken off by the attack of Shoshonq I. Shoshenq (Sheshonk) of Egypt invades Palestine, plunders the city of Jerusalem, devastates Edom, Judah, and much of Israel in the north. Death of Rehoboam, the King of Judah (the kingdom of the south). 915 BC Reign of Abijah (Abijam) the Second King of Judah. ca. 915-913 BC Civil War continues between Israel (the kingdom of the north) and Juda (the kingdom of the south) through his reign. Asa, Third King of Judah. ca. 913-873 BC Civil War continues between Israel (the kingdom of the north) and Judah (the kingdom of the south) throughout his reign. Nadab. Second King of Israel (the kingdom of the north). c. 912-910 BC Nadab is son of Jeroboam I of Israel. The New Assyrian Empire. The Assyrian Empire controls Mesopotamia (until 606 BC). 910 BC The murder of Nadab, the son of Jeroboam I, by Baasha. 910 BC Baasha. Third King of Israel. c. 910-909 BC The Dynasty of Baasha in the northern Kingdom of Israel. 910-876 BC Baasha. Third King of Israel (the kingdom of the north). Attempts to re-ignite the smoldering civil war with the Kingdom of Judah. Asa, King of Judah (913-873BC), however, calls upon Ben-Hadad I, King of Aram-Damascus (880-842BC). Ben-Hadad I attacks Baasha, King of Israel, lays waste to part of Galilee and annexes the territory northeast of the Yarmuk River. c. 909 BC Elah. Fourth King of Israel (the kingdom of the north). c. 909-908 BC Elah is the son of Baasha. During the New Assyrian Empire, Adad-Nirari II, engages in conflicts in Northern Mesopotamia. 909-889 BC Elah, the son of Baasha, King of Israel, is assassinated by Zimri. 908 BC Zimri. Fifth King of Israel. c. 908 BC Zimri is burnt to death in his palace in T'irzah by Omri. Omri. Sixth King of Israel (the kingdom of the north). c. 908-897 BC Omri advances to the throne by the army of Israel. Under his reign, Omri builds a new capital at Samaria making it the religious and governmental capital of Israel. Omri, King of Israel, establishes the Omride Dynasty. 908-842 BC Omri. Sixth King of Israel. Omri will renew alliances with the Phoenician city of Tyre, by the marriage of the Phoenician princess Jezebel, the daughter of Ittoba'al, King of Tyre (887-856 BC) to his son Ahab, the crown prince of Israel. c. 908 BC During his reign, Omri reconquers Moab (from the Mesha inscription). The founding of Sparta. ca. 900 BC Four villages (Limnia, Mesoa, Kynosura, and Petane) are consolidated into a single settlement in the Eurotas River Valley. Reign of Ahab, the Seventh King of Israel. c. 897-853 BC Ahab, King of Israel, will fight defensive wars with Ben-Hadad I, King of Aram-Damascus. Ittoba’al. King of Tyre. c. 887-856 BC Ittoba’al is the father of Jezebel. Reign of Ashurnarspal II (also written Ashurnasirpal). c. 883-859 BC The great grandson of Adad-Nirari, he is considered to be the most vicious of the Assyrian kings. He subsequently formed an empire which corresponded in size to that of Tiglath-Pileser I. The resistance of neighboring peoples was broken by annual campaigns which used cavalry probably for the first time in the history of warfare. Methods of subjugation put the conquered peoples into a state of fear. Used blinding, impalement, scourging, boiling alive, and mass executions. The Assyrians under Ashurbanipal II conquered Phoenicia. Reign of Ben-Hadad I, the King of Aram-Damascus. ca. 880-842 BC Samaria (formerly Shechem or Sichem) is rebuilt as the capital of Israel, the kingdom of the north. 879 BC Jehosophat, Fourth King of Judah. Judah is the kingdom of the south. ca. 873-849 BC Jehoshaphat. Fourth King of Judah. c. 860 BC Makes peace with Ahab, King of Israel (kingdom of the north). Ahab joins Jehoshaphat in the wars against Damascus. Reign of Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria. 859-824 BC Rules for 35 years. Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria, son of Ashurbanipal, cemented overlordship in Syria and Palestine in order to control the trade routes from the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers to the Mediterranean Sea. The subjugation of Damascus, the Aramean capital was not accomplished. Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria. Meets a coalition of Aramaean kings (Sam’al, Hattini, Carchemish, and Bît Adini) at Lutibu near Sam'al (modern Zincirli). 858 BC Shalmaneser III claims the victory even though he did not break the power of the allies. Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria. Conquers Bît Adini, captures its prince, and annexes the country to the Assyrian Empire. 857-855 BC Once again the west unites against Shalmaneser III of Assyria. 854 BC The chiefs of the alliance are Irkhuleni of Hamath and Ben Hadad I (Hadadezer) of Damascus. Battle of Quarqar on the Orontes. 854 BC Ahab, King of Israel, Ben-Hadad I of Damascus, and Irkhuleni of Hamath head the coalition that stops Shalmaneser's march of conquest. Shalmaneser III, however, is stopped, but he is not defeated. Death of Ahab, the King of Israel. 854 BC Dies in Transjordan while fighting against Ben Hadad of Damascus. Ahab is succeeded by Ahaziah as King of Israel. c. 854 BC Reign of Ahaziah the Eighth King of Israel. c. 854-853 BC Ahaziah is succeeded by Joram in the Kingdom of Israel (the kingdom of the north). 853 BC Joram (Jehoram). Ninth King of Israel. c. 853-842 BC Elijah the Prophet, flourishes at this time. ca. 852 BC Elijah becomes the leader of a counter movement against the "House of Omri". Elijah battles against the worship of the Tyrian (Tyre) false god Ba'al that was worshipped by Jezebel. Elijah began a religious revolution that eventually brought down the "House of Omri". Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria, continues his attacks against the western forces. 850, 849, and 846 BC The Greeks adopt the Phoenician alphabet. c. 850 BC Arrival of the Etruscans in Rome. c. 850 BC Jehoshaphat, King of Judah, is succeeded by his son Jehoram. 849 BC Reign of Jehoram. Fifth King of Judah. c. 849-842 BC Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab, King of Israel, and his wife Jezebel, marries Joram, King of Judah. c. 849 BC Phoenician gods are introduced and worshiped in Israel. Ahaziah. Sixth King of Judah. 842 BC Ahaziah, grandson of Jehosophat, the King of Judah, succeeds Jehoram as the King of Judah. Ahaziah rules Judah for less than one year. Inspired by the prophet Elisha, the warrior Jehu leads an open rebellion against the King of Israel and his worship of false gods. 842 BC Ahaziah, the King of Judah, is killed in the blood purge. 842 BC Jehu is annointed King of Israel (kingdom of the north) by a delegate of the prophet Elisha. ca. 842 BC Reign of Jehu,Tenth King of Israel. ca. 842- 815 BC Jehu, King of Israel, eliminates the Omrites and suppresses the worship of Baal, the false god of the Phoenicians. The Dynasty of Jehu of Israel. 842-748 BC Athaliah seizes power over the kingdom of Judah. 842 BC Athaliah is a descendant of the Omri Dynasty of Israel. Athaliah, the dowager queen, rules Judah tyrannically after the elimination of the Omrites. 842-836 BC Athaliah attempts to secure her throne by attempting to completely destroy the Davidic house. However, a small son of Ahaziah escapes (his name is Jehoash). Hazael. Rules as King of Damascus. ca. 842-806 BC Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria. Conquers Syria. He attacks and defeats Hazael, King of Damascus, who had just come to the throne. 842 BC Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria. Finally defeats the western enemies. Jehu, King of Israel, submits to Shalmaneser III, of Assyria. 842 BC Tribute is paid to the Assyrian Empire by Jehu, King of Israel. The enthronement of Jehoash, King of Judah, with the backing of the High Priest. c. 836 BC Reign of Jehoash, the Eighth King of Judah. c. 836-797 BC The murder of Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, and wife of Joram, King of Judah. 836 BC During his reign, Jehoash, King of Judah, is forced to pay a heavy tribute to Aram. Shalmaneser III of Assyria makes conquests in Cilicia. ca. 835 BC Shalmaneser III fights against Sardur I, king of Urartu. ca. 830 BC Reign of Shalmaneser III ends in revolution. 824 BC Jehoahaz. Rules as the Eleventh King of Israel. c. 815-798 BC Hazael, King of Damascus. During the time of Jehoahaz (King of Israel), Hazael reduced the Kingdom of Israel to a dependency, conquered Philistia, and put the Kingdom of Judah under enormous tribute. Hazael also had unified the Aramaen states. 814-798 BC The founding and building of Carthage (New City), in North Africa by Phoenicians of Tyre. 814 BC Carthage becomes a wealthy commercial center. Queen Samuramat of Assyria. 811-807 BC This is the so-called Queen of Semiramis. Appearance of Jonah. 810-790 BC Death of Hazael, King of Damascus. ca. 806 BC “The Iliad” and “The Odyssey”. ca. 800-750 BC Written by Homer. The establishment of the Phrygian Kingdom (Phrygia), in Northern Anatolia, with its capital at Gordium. ca. 800 BC The most important ruler of Phrygia is Midas. 23rd Dynasty of Egypt. 800-730 BC In dual reign with 22nd Dynasty. Amaziah, Ninth King of Judah. ca. 797-769 BC Amaziah is the son of Jehoash, King of Judah. Succeeds to the throne of Judah (the kingdom of the south). Jehoash (Joash), Twelfth King of Israel. c. 797-780 BC Fights against Judah and defeats Amaziah, King of Judah. Takes Jerusalem and reduces the southern kingdom to vassalage. Brief conquest of Egypt by Ethiopia. 790 BC Joel, the Prophet of Israel. c. 790-760 BC The Prophet Hosea of Israel. c. 785-725 BC Reign of Jeroboam II, Thirteenth King of Israel. c. 780-741 BC Jeroboam is the son of Jehoash. Under the reign of Jeroboam II, Damascus and Hamath come under Israel's control for the first time since the days of King Solomon. The Prophet Amos of Israel. c. 780-760 BC The Prophets Amos and Hosea prophesy the complete destruction of the kingdom of Israel if the people do not cease the worship of false gods. They prophesize against the idol worship and corruption of the ca. 780 BC time of Jeroboam II, King of Israel. First Olympiad is held in ancient Greece. 776 BC Olympic games are initiated. Phoenicia comes under Assyrian rule. 774-625 BC Amaziah, King of Judah, is defeated by Israel. 769 BC He is killed in Judean rebellion. Reign of Uzziah (Azariah). Tenth King of Judah. c. 769-734 BC During his reign, Uzziah becomes the head of a western coalition formed against Syria. Traditional date for the founding and building of the city of Rome. 753 BC Founded by Romulus and Remus. Hills were occupied for centuries by Indo-Europeans and Sabines, sheep herders. Romulus is the first King of Rome (Rex Romae). Romulus rules 753-716 BC. The Prophet Isaiah. c. 750-695 BC Etruscans from the north capture Rome. ca. 750 BC The Etruscans will rule until 509 BC which marks the founding of the Roman Republic. The Romans seize Sabine women at a public spectacle, taking them as wives. 750 BC Founding of the first Greek colonies in southern Italy (called Magna Graecia) and eastern Sicily. c. 750 BC Magna Graecia was the ancient name for southern Italy. The founding of Cumae (Cyme), one of the first Greek colonies in southern Italy. c. 750 BC Founded by Greeks from Chalcis and Kyme. Hesiod of Ascra (in Boeotia). Greek. Author of "Theogony". 750-700 BC Jotham, Uzziah's son, serves as regent of Judah. c. 749-734 BC Rome is taken by the Sabines who unite with the Romans as one people. 747 BC Micah. The Jewish Prophet of Israel. c. 745-725 BC Reign of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria. c. 744-727 BC Subjugates Syria and Philistia Zechariah. 14th King of Israel. c. 741 BC Assassination of Zechariah, King of Israel, the last of the dynasty of Jehu. He is killed by Shallum. ca. 741 BC Shallum. 15th King of Israel (kingdom of the north). c. 741 BC Shallum is killed by Menahem in continued civil strife. 741 BC Menahem. 16th King of Israel. c. 741-731 BC The First Messenian War. c. 740-720 BC The conquest of Messenia by Sparta under King Theopompus. The Spartans, like the Athenians, feel the pressures of population expansion. But rather than send out colonies, they conquer Messenia. Sparta becomes a powerful military force on the Greek mainland. c. 736-730 BC Greek colonists continue to settle in Sicily. 735 BC In Sicily, the native peoples, including the Sicels, Sicans, and Elymians, retain their identity, although the east coast of the island becomes Hellenized. Rezin, King of Aram (754-732 BC) and Pekah, King of Israel, enter into a league against Assyria. ca. 735 BC Ahaz. Twelfth King of Judah. ca. 735-715 BC Ahaz, King of Judah. Ahaz refuses to join the conspiracy of Israel and Aram formed against the Assyrian Empire. 735 BC Pekah, King of Israel, and Rezin, King of Aram, declare war on Ahaz, King of Judah. 735 BC Uzziah, King of Judah. Defeated by Tiglath-pileser III, King of Assyria. c. 734 BC Unlike Hamath and his northern allies, he escapes with little harm. In his later years, Uzziah, King of Judah, becomes a leper and lives in isolation from his court. ca. 734 BC The founding of the city of Syracuse in Sicily by Greeks from the Greek city Corinth. ca. 734 BC The Carthaginians control the western part of Sicily. They prove a continual source of friction to the Greeks in the east of the island. Ahaz, King of Judah. Against the warning of the prophet Isaiah, Ahaz appeals to Assyria for help against the Syro-Ephraimite coalition. 734 BC Tiglathpileser III of Assyria comes westward. 734-732 BC Tiglathpileser III of Assyria lays waste the kingdom of Israel. 732 BC Much of Israel is turned into an Assyrian province. Tiglathpileser III of Assyria appoints Hosea (732-722) king in Samaria. Hosea (Hoshea) is the 19th, and the last, King of Israel. c. 732 BC Tiglathpileser III of Assyria. Lays waste Babylon and Damascus. 732-729 BC The whole of Aram is turned into a province of the Assyrian Empire. In his last year, Menahem, King of Israel (741-731), pays tribute to Tiglath-pileser III, King of Assyria. 731 BC Reign of Pekahiah, 17th King of Israel. c. 731-729 BC Founding of Rhegium (modern day Reggio Calabria), Italy, by Greeks from Chalcis, Messenia, and Sparta. 730 BC Chalcis and Eretria in Euboea send colonies to Rhegium, Italy. 730 BC Pekahiah, King of Israel, is killed by the anti-Assyrian group led by Pekah. c. 729 BC Pekah. Eighteenth King of Israel. ca. 729-732 BC Tiglath-Pileser III. Becomes Babylonian King. 729 BC Hoshea, King of Israel. Rebels against Assyria, hoping to receive military assistance from Tefnakhte, the ruler of Egypt. 725 BC Destruction of the Kingdom of Israel (the kingdom of the north). 722 BC Sargon II, Assyrian King, destroys Samaria, the capital of Israel, after a 3 year siege, completing the Assyrian conquest of the kingdom of Israel. Sargon II of Assyria exiles most of the Jews that are in Israel. Resettlement of many of the Jews in Media and Mesopotamia. Israel becomes a province of the Assyrian Empire. Sargon II claims to have taken 27,290 Israelites into captivity. The Citadel of Sargon II. Khorsabad. 722-706 BC Reign of Sargon II, King of Assyria. 722-705 BC Rules for 17 years. Sargon II, King of Assyria. Arms the Assyrian armies with iron weapons. 722 BC Achaeans from Greece found the ancient city of Sybaris in southern Italy. c.720 BC Sargon II (son of Tiglath-Pileser III), King of Assyria. Captures the city of Carchemish. 717 BC Numa Pompilius. Second King of Rome (Rex Romae). 716-672 BC Hezekiah. Thirteenth King of Judah. c. 715-687 BC Victory of Assyria over the kingdom of Urartu. 714 BC Achaeans (Greek) found Crotona (Croton) in southern Italy. c. 710 BC Sargon II, King of Assyria, captures Babylon. 709 BC After struggles with the Assyrian Empire, the Phrygians conclude a peace and begin paying tribute to Sargon II, King of Assyria. 709 BC Founding of the Spartan colony of Taras (Tarentum) in Magna Graecia (southern Italy) by Sparta. 706 BC Reign of Sennacherib (son of Sargon II), King of Assyria. c.705-682 BC Achaemenes. First ruler of the Achaemenid kingdom. This is the Teispid kingdom (c. 705-559 BC). c. 705 BC Height of Assyrian expansionism. 704-669 BC Hezekiah, King of Judah (kingdom of the south). Enters into an alliance with Phoenicia, Philistia, and Egypt, against Sennacherib, the new King of Assyria. ca. 702 BC Sennacherib of Assyria, marches westward to meet Hezekiah, King of Judah, and his Phoenician, Philistine, and Egyptian allies. Conquest of Phoenicia (except for Tyre) by Sennacherib of Assyria. 701 BC Luli, King of the Sidonians (Sidon), flees in terror to Cyprus. Egyptian forces under Shabaka are easily defeated by the Assyrians at The Battle of Elteqeh. Philistia falls to the Assyrians. 701 BC Subjugation of Judea by Sennacherib of Assyria. 701 BC Sennacherib reduces 46 walled cities of Judah and leaves Hezekiah, King of Judah, shut up in Jerusalem "like a bird in a cage". Sennacherib of Assyria is at Jerusalem. 701 BC Sennacherib threatens to destroy the city of Jerusalem. Hezekiah, King of Judea, capitulates, paying heavy tribute to the Assyrian Empire. The Achaeans (Greek) found the city of Metapontion (Metapontum) in southern Italy. c. 700 BC Founding of the Empire of the Medes (lasts until 549 BC). 700 BC Celts (Celtics) begin to invade Spain and France. 700 BC Deloces. First King of the Medes. 700-647 BC Greeks settle in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and Syria. c. 700-650 BC Temple of Hera is erected at Olympus. ca. 700 BC This is an example of an early Doric style temple. The destruction of Babylon by Sennacherib, King of Assyria. 689 BC Sennacherib of Assyria builds a magnificent palace at Nineveh. Sennacherib transforms Nineveh into the country's capital. 689 BC Rhodes and Crete settle the city of Gela in Sicily. 688 BC Manasseh. Fourteenth King of Judah. c. 687-642 BC Manasseh, son of Hezekiah, and his son Amon will rule as puppets of the Assyrian Empire during the reigns of Esarhaddon (681-669 BC) and Ashurbanapal (669-631 BC). Manasseh, King of Judah, is particularly remembered for his worship of false gods, including the Assyrian cult, and for the practice of child sacrifice. Reign of Gyges, King of Lydia. c. 685-652 BC King Gyges dethroned Candaules (Kandaules), King of Lydia, and subjected Western Asia Minor. Gyges fought without success against the Greek cities, conquering only Colophon. The severity, waste, and brutal conduct of Sennacherib of Assyria bring about his murder. 681 BC Reign of Essarhaddon, King of Assyria (son of Sennacherib). 681-669 BC Essarhaddon orders the rebuilding of Babylon. Allied with the Scythians, he pushed the Cimmerians back and conquered Egypt, short of Nubia. Under Essarhaddon, the Assyrian Empire achieves its greatest territorial expansion extending from what is now Iran to Egypt. Locrians, from Locri, Greece, found the city of Locri in southern Italy. Legal code is drawn up by Zaleucus. c. 680 BC Tullus Hostilius. Third King of Rome (Rex Romae). c. 672-640 BC Second Babylonian Empire is established. c.670 BC Conquest of Egypt by Esarhadon (Essarhaddon), King of Assyria. 669 BC Essarhadon dies while fighting in Egypt. Reign of Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria. 669-631 BC Ruled for 38 years. Under his reign, the large library at Nineveh is established. Contains 30,000 clay tablets of writings, including poetry, literature, historical, philosophical, religious, medical, astronomical, and other scientific writings as well as records of business transactions. The destruction of Thebes by Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria. 667 BC The founding of Byzantium by the Greek city Megara. ca.667 BC Reign of Psamtik I of Egypt. 663-609 BC Psamtik, frees Egypt from Assyrian rule. During his reign, Ionian mercenaries settle (c. 640 BC) in the Egyptian delta and Ionian trading stations are founded (Naucratis). Nahum. Prophet of the Kingdom of Judah. c. 660-630 BC Cypselus establishes tyranny at Corinth, Greece. 655 BC Gyges, King of Lydia, is killed during the defensive struggle fighting against the Cimmerians. 652 BC The Second Messenian War. ca.650-630 BC The Messenians revolt against Sparta. A tightly disciplined Spartan hoplite Phalanx finally defeats the Messenians after 20 years of warfare. Phraortes. Second King of the Medes. 647-625 BC Amon. Fifteenth King of Judah. 642-640 BC Teispes. Son of Achaemenes is ruler of Achaemenid kingdom. c. 640 BC Josiah. Sixteenth King of Judah (the kingdom of the south). c.640-609 BC Ancus Marcius. Fourth King of Rome (Rex Romae). c. 640-616 BC Miletus joins other cities in the founding of the important trading post of Naucratis, in the Nile Delta, Egypt. 640 BC Greeks found the north African city of Cyrene. ca.631 BC Cyrene becomes an important commercial center. Death of Assurbanipal, King of Assyria. 631 BC Jeremiah. Prophet of the Kingdom of Judah. His warnings of the impending and final destruction of Israel and Judah are rejected by the Hebrew people. c. 628-588 BC Ashur-etil-ilani. King of Assyria. 631-627 BC Zephaniah. Prophet of Judah. c. 630-620 BC Josiah. King of Judah. Moves into the old territory of Israel, annexing the Assyrian provinces of Samaria, Gilead, and Galilee. c. 627 BC Chaldean Empire of Mesopotamia. 625-539 BC Also known as the New Babylonian Empire. Nabopolasser, King of the New Babylonian Empire. 625-605 BC Includes western Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine. Cyaxares. Third King of the Medes. 624-585 BC Coming out of what is now called Turkestan and pursuing the Cimmerians into Asia Minor, the Sycthians are pushed back by Cyaxares, King of the Medes. c. 624 BC An ancient forgotten text, the core of the Book of Deuteronomy, is found in the Temple of Jerusalem. 622 BC Josiah, the King of Judah, initiates a religious renewal, after the ancient text is found in the Temple of Jerusalem. The Temple is purified and all other symbols and false idols are destroyed. The forgotten law book is republished and made the basis of the religious reform of the Jews. False gods, false idols, and all false religions are rejected. Worship is centralized in the city of Jerusalem. Draco. Promulgates a very strict law code in Athens. 621 BC Habakkuk. Prophet of the Kingdom of Judah. c. 620-610 BC Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. Fifth King of Rome (Rex Romae). c.616-578 BC Conquest and destruction of Assur and all Assyrian cities by the Medes under Cyaxares, King of Media (the Medes), and Nabopolassar, King of the New Babylonian Empire. 614-608 BC The conquest and destruction of the Assyrian city of Ashur by Cyaxares, King of the Medes. 614 BC The population is wiped out and the land is made waste. Cyaxares, King of Media, besieges Nineveh but fails to take it. 614 BC The Fall of Nineveh. 612 BC Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, is conquered and destroyed by the alliance of Nabopolassar of the Chaldeans (Neo-Babylonians) and Cyaxares, King of Media (the Medes). The allies attack the Assyrian capital of Nineveh on the Tigris River. Nineveh is destroyed, never to be rebuilt. The population is wiped out and the land is laid waste. In an attempt to keep the kingdom of Assyria alive, Ashur-uballit, an Assyrian general, sets up new headquarters at Harran. Anaximander. Greek philosopher. 611-546 BC Battle of Megiddo. 609 BC Josiah, King of Judah, meets his death at the Battle of Megiddo fighting a delaying action against Pharaoh Necho (Neko) II, who was hastening to the aid of Assyria. Jehoahaz. 17th King of Judah. 609 BC Jehoiakim. 18th King of Judah. 609-598 BC Conquest and destruction of the Assyrian city of Harran (Haran). 609 BC The population is wiped out and the land laid waste. Nabopollassar of the Babylonian Chaldean dynasty annihilates the Assyrian army. Ashur-uballit is defeated. The Assyrian Empire ceases to exist. Battle of Carchemish. 605 BC Nebuchadnezzar defeats the Egyptians at Carchemish in Mesopotamia. Pharaoh Necho (Neko) II of Egypt arrives too late to help. Necho was delayed by Jewish forces under King Josiah who was killed at Megiddo. Upon arriving at Carchemish, Necho’s army is defeated, chased to Hamath and destroyed. Death of Nabopolassar. Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabopolassar, becomes king. Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, King of Babylon. 605-562 BC Babylon, with its hanging gardens (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World), is the greatest city of its time during his reign. Birth of Lao Tzu (name at birth was Li Erh) according to tradition. Author of the “Tao Te Ching”. ca.604 BC Lao Tzu is the founder of Taoism. Zarathustra. Persia. c. 600 BC Founder of Zoroastrianism. The Zend Avesta. Founding of a “League of Twelve Cities” in Italy. Modeled after the Ionian League of Cities in Greece. ca.600 BC Phocaea (Greeks) settles Marssalia in Gaul. This is the modern day Marseilles, France. c. 600 BC Joiachim (Jechoniah). 19th King of Judah. c. 598-597 BC Zedekiah. 20th and the last King of Judah. 597-586 BC Laws of Solon are promulgated in Athens. 594 BC Apries, Pharaoh of Egypt. 589-570 BC Destruction of the Kingdom of Judah. 586 BC Nebuchadnezzar II , King of Babylon, invades and destroys Jerusalem. Nebuchadnezzar destroys the Temple of Solomon and carries the inhabitants of Judah to Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar II burns the city of Jerusalem. Beginning of the “Babylonian Captivity” of the Jews. Conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar of the New Babylonian Empire, because of the alliance (see Hezekiah 715-687 BC) between Judah and Egypt. The “Babylonian Captivity” of the Jews. 586-538 BC Subsequently the Diaspora (Greek=”dispersal”) became the fate of the Jews. Conquest of Phoenicia by the New Babylonian Empire. 586 BC Only Tyre was able to withstand siege. The Phoenician city of Tyre withstands a siege by the New Babylonian Empire lasting 13 years. 585-573 BC Thales of Miletus (fl.625-545 BC). Greek natural philosopher. Thales taught the existence of the soul and the immortality of the soul. 585 BC Awed by a solar eclipse predicted by Thales of Miletus, Cyaxares, King of the Medes, breaks off an undecided battle (at the Halys River in Asia Minor) with Alyottes of Lydia. May 28, 585 BC Astyages. Fourth King of the Medes. 585-549 BC Astyages is the son of Cyaxares and will be the last King of the Medes. He will be dethroned in 549 BC by Cyrus the Great of Persia. Cyrus I. The son of Teispes (Teispid kingdom) Cyrus I is ruler of Achaemenid kingdom. c.580 BC Birth of Pythagoras of Samos (580-500 BC). 580 BC Greek natural philosopher is born on the island of Samos. The Temple of Artemis. Corfu. ca.580 BC Servius Tullius. Sixth King of Rome (“Rex Romae”). c. 578-534 BC Temple of Apollo. Syracuse, Sicily. ca.575 BC Example of early Doric style architecture. Apries of Egypt launches a military expedition against Cyrene. Greeks of Cyrene in North Africa defeat Apries of Egypt. 570 BC Amasis II, Pharaoh of Egypt. 570-526 BC Overthrows Apries of Egypt and declares himself pharaoh. Amasis II is a friend of Polycrates of Greece. Adopts parts of Greek culture. Encourages Greek settlement in Egypt. Pisistratus conquers Salamis for Athens. c.565 BC Birth of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha). Born in what is now Nepal. c.563 BC Death of Nebuchadrezzar, King of Babylon. 562 BC Effectively marks the end of Babylonian power. Croesus is the last King of Lydia. 561-546 BC Pisistratus becomes ruler of Athens. 561 BC He is expelled almost at once by Lycurgus and Megacles. Cambyses I. Ruler of the Achaemenid kingdom. c.560 BC Cambyses is the son of Cyrus I and father of Cyrus II. Attic black figure vases are made at this time. c.560 BC Temple of Hera at Samos. c.560 BC A huge Ionic style temple with double peristyle. Celtic peoples are established in Ireland and Scotland. c.560 BC First Roman census is taken. 560 BC Pisistratus regains power in Athens. c.560 BC Introduces the cult of Dionysus which derived from Thrace in what is now called Bulgaria. Cyrus II, the Great, Achaemenid King of Anzan. c.559 BC Founds the first Persian Empire. Includes vast areas of the Near and Middle East. Cyrus II rules the Persian Empire (559-529 BC). Nabonidus. 555-539 BC Briefly revives the declining Babylon. Birth of Confucius (Latinized form of K’ung-fu-tze). 551 BC Chinese philosopher, teacher, and scholar. Lives 551-479 BC. Confucius is considered by many to be the most influential figure in the history of China. He is the founder of Confucianism. Zoroaster dies (founder of Zoroastrianism). c. 551 BC The “Basilica.” Paestum, Italy. ca.550 BC Carthaginian armies campaign in Sicily. 550 BC Temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus is erected at Ephesus. ca.550 BC Enormous Ionic style temple in Asia Minor with double peristyle. Cyrus, the Great, of Persia. Deposes his overlord Astyages, the last king of the Medes (Media). Overthrows the Median dynasty and strengthens his rule in what is now called Iran. Rules Media 549-529 BC. 549 BC Croesus, King of Lydia, attacks Cyrus II of Persia at the Halys River. The battle is inconclusive. 547 BC The fall of Sardis (the capital of Lydia). 547 BC Persian conquest of Lydia. Cyrus the Great of Persia, conquers the kingdom of Lydia of Croesus. 10,000 are killed in battle. Croesus, the last King of Lydia, is defeated by Cyrus the Great of Persia. One by one the city states along the coast of Asia Minor are taken by the Persian armies of Cyrus the Great. Cyrus the Great now also rules as King of Lydia. 547-529 BC Sparta strengthens its military power in the Peloponnesus and forms the Peloponnesian League. 546 BC Cyrus the Great of Persia. Leads the Persian armies in the conquest of Greek cities of western Asia Minor. c. 546 BC Cyrus the Great of Persia. Sacks Phocaea, Greece, forcing Phocaeans to flee westward. 546 BC Some of them found Elea on the Tyrrhenian coastline. This may possibly be the last settlement of Greeks in Italy. Polycrates is tyrant of Samos. 540-520 BC Xenophanes of Colophon. Greek natural philosopher. ca.540 BC Xenophanes founds a school of philosophy at Elea in southern Italy. Elea is a recently formed Greek colony. Parmenides of Elea. 540-470 BC Greek philosopher of the Eleatic school. Temple of Apollo, Corinth. ca.540 BC Doric style temple with thick, monolithic columns. Seven of these columns are still standing. Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II), King of Persia. Persian conquest of the New Babylonian Empire. 539 BC Conquers the Chaldeans. Enters into and conquers Babylon, making it a Persian Province. Cyrus II the Great will permit the Jews to return to Jerusalem in 536 BC. Cyrus the Great. King of Babylon. 539-529 BC Cyrus the Great. 539 BC With the conquest of the New Babylonian Empire by Cyrus II, Palestine now becomes part of Persia. Some of the Jews in captivity will return in 536 BC. A revival begins under the prophets Nehemiah and Ezra. Palestine is under Persian dominion. 539-332 BC Phoenicia becomes a Persian province. 539 BC The Persian Empire of Cyrus II the Great now runs from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus Valley, and south from the Caucasus to the Arabian Sea. 539 BC Thespis. Establishes tragic drama at Athens, Greece. 539 BC Edict of Cyrus the Great. 536 BC The Jews are freed by Cyrus the Great from their “Babylonian Captivity”. The Jews are permitted to return back to Judah. Judah, however, is now a Persian province. Battle of Alalia. 535 BC Naval victory of the Etruscans, in alliance with the Carthaginians, over Phocaean Greek settlers on Corsica in the sea battle at Alalia. Naval supremacy of the Etruscans in the north western Mediterranean is thereby secured (maritime trade). Reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (Etruscan ruler). 534-509 BC Seventh and last King of Rome (“Rex Romae”). Pythagoras. Greek philosopher. Leaves his native island of Samos (because of the tyranny of Polycrates) and goes to the Greek colony of Croton in Southern Italy where he founds a group devoted to a life of contemplation and study. 531 BC Subjects studied are psychology, philosophy, astronomy, physics, arithmetic, geometry, mathematics, music, logic, and acoustics. Carthage becomes independent of Phoenicia. 530 BC Anakreon of Teos (570-488 BC) and Ibycus of Rhegium. Poets. Spend part of their lives at the court of Polycrates of Samos. ca.530 BC Temple of Ceres, Paestum. ca.530 BC Doric style temple with elaborate ornament and pronounced curvature of the columns. The Treasury of the Syphnians. Delphi. ca.530 BC Polycrates of Samos. Dominates the Aegean Sea with his naval fleet. c.530 BC Death of Cyrus II, the Great. 529 BC Dies in the struggles against the Massagetae in what is now eastern Iran (near the Oxus and Jaxartes Rivers). Cambyses, son of Cyrus II, kills his brother Smerdis. Cambyses II, son of Cyrus the Great, becomes King of Persia. 529 BC Rules for seven years (rules 529-522 BC). Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha). At about the age of 35, Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) begins to teach his ideas in India. Founder of Buddhism. ca.528 BC Hippias and Hipparchus, sons of Pisistratus. Succeed to his rulership of Athens. 527 BC Destruction of Siris. 527 BC Battle of Pelusium. 525 BC The Persians defeat the Egyptians after a hard fought battle at Pelusium. Conquest of Egypt by the Persians. The Persians under Cambyses II, conquer Egypt (Psammetichus III) and make it a Persian province. Cambyses II of Persia has himself crowned Pharaoh of Egypt. Egypt becomes a Persian province from 525 BC until 404 BC. Cambyses II, the King of Persia, goes mad in Egypt. 525 BC Persian rule in Egypt. 525-404 BC Red figure style vases replace black figure style vases in Athens. c. 525 BC The Etruscans dominate Italy. c. 525-509 BC Etruscan expansion in Italy is ended by Greeks at Cumae. 524 BC Death of Cambyses of Persia in Syria, on the way back to Susa, of an accidental wound. Leaves no heirs to succeed him. 522 BC Darius the Mede, son of Hystaspes, one of the chief counsellors of Cyrus the Great, is made King of Persia. 522 BC Darius I divides the Persian Empire into twenty satrapies (provinces), of which Egypt is one. Darius I rules from the Hellespont to the Indus. His rule includes all of Asia Minor and Syria, that is, the ancient Lydian and Hittite Empires, all of the previous Assyrian and Babylonian Empires, Egypt, the Caucasus, and Caspian regions, Media, Persia, and is extended into India to the Indus. Darius I rules Persian Empire. 522-486 BC Darius I. King of Persia. Expedition to Scythia. 521 BC Darius I of Persia’s conquest of Greek cities in Asia Minor causes a shift of the Greek’s cultural center westward to mainland Greece and Sicily. c.520 BC Rebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem is resumed by the Jews. The Jews are urged on by the prophet Haggai. The Temple will be completed 515 BC. 520 BC Founders of Buddhism and Jainism in India each begins to develop their alternatives to Brahmanism. c.520 BC Capture of Thebes (Luxor), and transplantation of 6,000 Egyptians to Susiana. 520 BC Cleomenes I of Sparta. Leads an abortive thrust against Attica. c.520 BC Darius I, the son-in-law of Cyrus II the Great, brings the Persian Empire to its greatest territorial extent. 520 BC Conquest of Sardinia by Carthage. 520 BC Darius I of Persia. Crushes the revolt of the false Smerdis. c.519 BC Thrusts his boundaries east beyond the Indus. Darius I of Persia founds the city of Persepolis. 518 BC Darius I of Persia. Rules from palaces at Babylon, Ecbatana, Susa, and his chief capital (from 518 BC), the newly founded Persepolis. 518 BC Hecataeus. Produces a map showing the world as a disk. 517 BC Darius I of Persia. Takes Gandhara in India and sends the Greek admiral Skylax to investigate the Indus Valley. 517-509 BC Invasion of Egypt by Darius I, King of Persia. 517 BC Secures the lands that Cambyses had previously conquered. Scythian expedition of Darius I, of Persia. c.516 BC Completion and dedication of the Temple of Jerusalem. 515 BC Hipparchus, the dictator of Athens, is killed by Harmodius and Aristogeiton. 514 BC Darius I completes the subjugation of the Indus River region. 513 BC Darius I of Persia. Leads the Persian armies into Europe by crossing the Hellespont. Darius conquers Thrace. 513 BC Darius I of Persia is unsuccessful in his campaign against the Scythians across the Bosphorus. 512 BC Expulsion of Hipparchus’s brother Hippias by the Athenians led by Cleisthenes. End of the Peisistratid tyranny. 510 BC High point of Etruscan power and civilization in Italy. c.510 BC Darius I of Persia. Persians annex the Indus Valley. c.510 BC Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and the last King of Rome, is overthrown by rebellion. 509 BC Ejection of the Tarquins (Etruscans) from Rome. End of Etruscan supremacy of Rome. Founding of the Roman Republic. 509 BC Ruled by consuls annually elected by the “comitia centuriata” as assembly. The Roman Republic will last from 509 BC to 27 BC. Treaty between the Roman Republic and Carthage. 509 BC This is the first public Roman treaty. Recognition of Carthaginian trade monopoly in the western Mediterranean Sea by Rome. Roman allies are not to be troubled by Carthage. Completion of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, called the Capitol in Rome. 509 BC Reforms of Cleisthenes. 508 BC Cleisthenes’ reforms bring democracy to Greece. Introduction of “ostracism” as a means of banishing without loss of property or privileges, citizens that are considered to be dangerous to the state. Ostracism of Cleisthenes at the instigation of Sparta. 508 BC The Etruscan ruler, Lars Porsena, attacks Rome. 508 BC Heroic defense of the bridge over the river Tiber by Horatius Cocles. Brief restoration of Etruscan dominion over Rome by the Etruscan Lars Porsena. Spartans under Cleomenes attempt to restore the aristocracy in Athens. Athenians rise up and put Cleisthenes back into power. 507 BC Death of Pythagoras of Samos. ca.500 BC Heracleitus of Ephesus. Greek natural philosopher. “On Nature.” ca.500 BC Capture of Sardinia by Greeks, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians. c. 500 BC Founding of Greek and Carthaginian colonies in Spain. c.500 BC Anaxagoras. Greek natural philosopher. 500-428 BC Persian-Greek Wars. 500-479 BC The Persians control Greek colonies on the coast of Asia Minor. Greek colonies on the coast of Asia Minor revolt against Persian rule. They receive military aid (ships) from Athens. 500 BC Ionian War. 499-494 BC Ionian Greek cities in Asia Minor revolt against Persian rule. 499-494 BC The Ionian revolt under the leadership of Aristagoras of Miletus (assisted only by Athens and Eretria) is beaten down by the Persians after initial successes. Persians advance against Sardis. Burning of Sardis by the Persians. 499 BC Battle of Ephesus. 499 BC The Persians defeat the Greeks at Ephesus. Defeat of the Persian fleet at Cyprus. 498 BC The Persians counter-attack the Greeks. c.497 BC The Persians will reconquer Cyprus and destroy the Ionian fleet near the island of Lade (494 BC). Battle of Lake Regillus. c.496 BC Roman dictator Postumius defeats the Latins at Lake Regillus. Tarquin is defeated and killed. Empedocles. Greek philosopher. 495-430 BC The capture and destruction of Miletus by the Persians. 494 BC The Ionian revolt is crushed and the inhabitants of Miletus are deported to Mesopotamia. Rome reenters the Latin League. 494 BC Latin League, under the leadership of Rome in Latium, is directed against the Etruscans. 494 BC Plebians in Rome revolt and win political rights from the patricians. 494 BC Conquest of the city of Corioli by the Romans under their general Gaius Marcius who later receives the surname Coriolanus. 493 BC Themistocles fortifies the Piraeus. 493 BC Darius I, of Persia, sends his son-in-law, Mardonius, to lead the first Persian expedition to punish Athens. 492 BC Conquest of Macedonia by the Persians under their commander Mardonius. 492 BC Miltiades, the Younger, ruler of Chersones, flees to Athens where he is elected one of the ten “strategoi”. First Persian expedition against Greece. A storm destroys the Persian fleet of Mardonius at the rocky promontory of Mount Athos. Sparta and Athens reject the Persian (Darius I) demand that all Greek city states submit (i.e. to send tokens of water and earth). 492 BC Banishment of dissident Coriolanus from Rome. 491 BC Second Persian Expedition to Greece. 490 BC Under the command of Datis and Artaphernes and accompanied by Hippias, 30,000 men are sent by the Persian King Darius I. Destruction of Eretria from the island of Euboea, and deportation of its inhabitants. Battle of Marathon. September 12, 490 BC The Persian army lands at Marathon, Greece, to march on to Athens. By the use of superior Greek military strategy, an Athenian land army numbering some 10,000 men led by Miltiades, defeats 30,000 Persians. The victory was reported by the “Marathon runner”. The Athenians defeat the Persians, turning back the second Persian invasion of Greece. Return of the Persian fleet (the second Persian expedition to Greece) to Asia Minor. 490 BC Athens is at war with Aegina. c.489-483 BC Miltiades attacks Paros but fails. 489 BC Following the failure of his campaign against Paros, Miltiades is condemned and dies in prison. 489 BC Themistocles carries through fleet building program. 487-483 BC 180 triremes (= oars arranged by threes) were completed by 481. Darius I of Persia dies while preparing still another campaign against Greece. 486 BC Accession of Xerxes I, King of Persia (reigns 486-465 BC). 486 BC Xerxes I is the son of Darius I, the Great, of Persia. Revolt in Egypt against Persian rule. 486-484 BC Xerxes I, King of Persia, crushes revolts in Babylonia. c.485 BC Xerxes I, King of Persia (to 465 BC) demands tribute from the Greek states. 485 BC Most of the Greek states refuse. Gela (Gelon), is master of Syracuse, Sicily. 485 BC Xerxes I, King of Persia. Crushes the revolt in Egypt against Persian rule. 484 BC Birth of Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484-408 BC). 484 BC Death of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha). 483 BC Wars with the Veii in Rome. 481-475 BC Period of the Warring States in China. 481-221 BC Third Persian expedition to Greece. 481-480 BC Xerxes I (Ahasuerus), King of Persia, and the son of Darius I, assembles a great host of more than 180,000 men at Sardis in Asia Minor in order to invade Greece. His Phoenicians and Egyptians build two ship bridges across the Hellespont from Abydos (Nagara) to Sestos, 2000 yards long. One bridge of planks and dirt rests on 360 ships; the other on 314 ships. Herodotus says that the army crossed for seven days and seven nights. Xerxes I, launches the third Persian expedition to invade Greece. Battle of Thermopylae. 480 BC In order to secure the retreat of the Greek army under Leonidas, the King of Sparta, the Greek rearguard, consisting of 300 Spartan warriors, supported by 5600 Thespians and Thebans, holds off the Persians in the Pass of Thermopylae until they are overcome. All of the Spartans die in battle. Persians move on and devastate Boeotia, Athens, and Attica. 480 BC The population of Athens is evacuated to nearby islands. 480 BC Destruction of the Acropolis. Burning of the great city of Athens. Battle of Artemisium. 480 BC Naval battle fought between Greeks and Persians. Indecisive. Battle of Salamis. September 480 BC (Part of the Persian Greek Wars). Athenians, led by the Spartan Eurybiades who followed the plans of Themistocles, destroy the Persian fleet near Salamis, under the eyes of King Xerxes I in the Battle of Salamis. Limited by the narrowness of the strait, the superior Persian fleet had no maneuverability against the 310 Greek ships. Themistocles’ fleet sinks between 200-300 out of the 600 Persian ships. Unpursued by the Greeks, the Persian fleet withdraws to Asia Minor. Mardonius moves the Persian army into winter quarters in Thessalia. The great city of Athens is saved. The mother city, Tyre, commands Carthage to attack the Sicilian Greeks (i.e. the Greeks in Sicily). 480 BC Carthaginians attack Sicily. 480 BC The Battle of Himera. 480 BC The Carthaginians under Hamilcar I (ruled 510-480 BC) are defeated by Gelon (Gela) of Syracuse at Himera, Sicily. Hamilcar I dies in battle. Syracuse gains control of Sicily. Temple of Zeus Olympius, Agrigentum. ca.480-06 BC This is the largest of the Doric style temples. Polygnotus. Athenian. Paints large masterpieces. c.480 BC Fourth Persian expedition against Greece. 479 BC Battle of Platea. 479 BC The Greeks rally about 70,000 men from Greek states, under the Spartan general Pausanias. The Fourth Persian expedition under Mardonius against Greece is defeated and turned back on land at the Battle of Platea, near the Attica border. Mardonius dies in battle. Battle of Mycale (near Miletus). A Greek naval force under Leotychides, the King of Sparta, defeats the Persians at sea in the Battle of Mycale. The Persian army is virtually destroyed. Completion of the repulse of the Persian invasion. 479 BC Persia loses Sestos and the Hellespont. The Persians are expelled from Greece. 479 BC Capture and destruction of Babylon by the Persians. 479 BC City walls surrounding Athens and Piraeus are rebuilt despite the objection of Sparta. 479 BC The Ionian city states are liberated by a Greek fleet under the Spartan general Pausanias. Byzantium, Bosporus, and Cyprus are recaptured from the Persians by the Greeks. 478 BC Delian League. c. 478 BC Aristides (opponent of Themistocles) founds the Delian League (First Attican Maritime Alliance, composed of Athens and the Ionian cities) as a defense against the Persians. Cimon, Athenian general, and son of Miltiades. Continues the defensive war against the Persians, commanding the fleet of the newly formed Delian League. 477-449 BC Beginning of the ascendancy of Athens in Greece. 477 BC Death of the 306 Roman Fabii in battle with Etruscan forces. 477 BC Sicily is threatened by the southward expansion of Etruria from the mainland of Italy. 475 BC Battle of Cumae (Cyme). 474 BC Defeat and destruction of the Etruscan fleet, by a fleet of Sicilian Greeks of Syracuse, Sicily, under Hiero I of Syracuse, brother of Gelon (Gela) of Syracuse, in the naval battle of Cyme (Latin, Cumae). Aeschylus (525-456 BC). “The Persians”. Tragedy. 472 BC Banishment of Themistocles from Athens. 471 BC First Publilian Laws in Rome. 471 BC Temple of Zeus at Olympia. ca. 470-460 BC Early classical masterpiece of Doric order. This is the focal point of Greece’s greatest international sanctuary. Ludovisi Throne. ca. 470-460 BC Enigmatic work probably produced somewhere in Southern Italy. “The Charioteer”. Bronze sculpture. Delphi. ca. 470 BC Themistocles. Dies as a Persian vassal at Magnesia on the Meander River. 470 BC Voyage of Hanno. Carthaginian. c. 470 BC Sails down the coast of Africa as far as what is now called Cameroon. Birth of Socrates (469 BC-399 BC). 469 BC Athens becomes the leading member of the Delian League and subdues dissident members beginning with Naxos. 468 BC Battle of Naxos. 468 BC Aeschylus (525-456 BC). “Seven Against Thebes”. 467 BC Rhegium and Taras are defeated with heavy losses by the native Italian Iapyges (native inhabitants of Southern Italy). 467 BC Battle of Eurymedon River. 466 BC Athens takes the offensive in the struggle against Persia. Athenian general Cimon destroys the Persian army and navy at the Eurymedon River in Asia Minor. Victory of Cimon over the Persians. Final defeat of the Persians. Assassination of Xerxes I, King of Persia. August 465 BC Artaxerxes I, his son, becomes King of Persia. Reign of Artaxerxes I: 465-424 BC. The population of Sparta is greatly reduced in numbers because of a series of disastrous earthquakes. 465 BC Third Messenian War. 464-455 BC Spartans win. Second Revolt in Egypt (under Inaros) against Persian rule. 462-454 BC Alliance of Athens with Argos and Thessaly. 462 BC Ostracism of Cimon. 462-454 BC Murder of Ephialtes. Pericles comes to prominence in Athens, Greece. 461 BC “Temple of Poseidon”. Paestum, Italy. ca. 460 BC First Greek temple built in Italy that reflects the Greek classical style of architecture. Aeschylus (525-456 BC). “Prometheus Bound”. 460 BC Hippocrates. Greek physician. 460-377 BC Democritus of Abdera. Greek natural philosopher. 460-370 BC Postulates the atomic structure of matter. Outbreak of the First Peloponnesian War. 460 BC First Peloponnesian War (460-446 BC). Athens wars against Sparta and the Peloponnesian cities which are allied with Sparta. Return of the prophet Ezra to Jerusalem. 458 BC Ezra. Jewish prophet. c. 458 BC A law promulgated by Ezra forms the basis of the religion of the Law, which was the gift of God. The Pentateuch, the Sacred Law, is the first five books of the Old Testament. Battle of Aegina. 458-457 BC (Part of the First Peloponnesian War). Aegina allied itself with the Peloponnesians. The Athenians under Leosthenes conquers the island of Aegina and forces it to accept membership in the Athenian dominated Delian League. War between Athens and Corinth. Defeat of the Corinthians by the Athenians. 458 BC Aeschylus (525-456 BC). “The Oresteia”. Considered by many to be his greatest work. 458 BC Sparta joins the war against Athens. 457 BC Battle of Tanagra. 457 BC (Part of the First Peloponnesian War). The Spartans defeat the Athenians. Battle of Oenophyta. 457 BC (Part of the First Peloponnesian War). Myronides rallies the Athenians and crushes the Thebans and their allied armies at Oenophyta. War of the Spartans and Boeotians against Athens. 457-446 BC Cincinnatus becomes Roman dictator and rescues the Roman army surrounded by the neighboring Aequi and saves the Roman Republic. 458 BC Persian army reaches Egypt under the Persian general Megabyxus. 456 BC Athen’s land empire reaches its greatest extent. 456 BC Jewish law forbids marriage between Jews and gentiles (non-Jews). 456 BC Athenians aid an anti-Persian revolt in Egypt. 456-454 BC Athenians are defeated by the Persian army under Megabyxus. 454 BC The Athenian expedition to aid Egypt ends in disaster. End of the second revolt of Egypt against Persian rule. 454 BC Achaea joins the Athenian alliance. 454 BC Three Roman senators are sent to Athens in order to study the laws that were developed by Solon. 451 BC Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484-408 BC). “History of the Persian Wars.” c.451 BC The Decemvirate in Rome. 451-449 BC Law of the Twelve Tablets. 451-450 BC Codification of Roman Law by the Decemvirs. The Law of the Twelve Tablets is the basis of all Roman Law. Roman Law is codified for the first time. Temple of Hephaestus; also called the Temple of Theseus (so-called “Theseum”), Athens. Well preserved Greek temple. ca. 450-440 BC Myron. Greek sculptor. “Discobolus”. Sculpture. ca. 450 BC Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484-408 BC). Greek historian. His journey to Egypt. c. 450 BC Thucydides (471-402 BC). Greek historian. “History of the Peloponnesian Wars”. 450-406 BC Battle of Salamis. 449 BC Persia is defeated by an Athenian force in Greek Cyprus. Peace of Callias. Peace between Greek states and Persia. 449 BC Persia agrees to acknowledge the independence of Greek cities. War between Athens and Sparta. 448 BC Spartan expedition to Delphi. Building of the Acropolis, Athens. 448-433 BC The Acropolis is designed by Ictinus and Callicrates. Much of the sculpture is by Phidias. Valerian and Horatian Laws in Rome. 448 BC Boeotian League. 447 BC Emergence of the Boeotian League as a hostile rival to the Athenian League. Battle of Coronea. 447 BC (Part of the First Peloponnesian War). Boeotia defeats the Athenians at Coronea. End of the First Peloponnesian War (460-446 BC). 446 BC Thirty Years Peace between Athens and Sparta. 446 BC Athens is forced to conclude the Thirty Year Peace with Sparta and to recognize the hegemony of Sparta in the Peloponnesus. Athens surrenders land empire. Next to Persia and Carthage, Athens is now the third great power in the Mediterranean world. Canuleian Laws in Rome. 445 BC End of the Greek war with Persia. 445 BC Return of the prophet Nehemiah to Jerusalem. 444 BC Nehemiah will rebuild the walls of the city of Jerusalem. Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sunium is built. c. 445 BC Consular Tribunes. Rome appoints military tribunes with consul’s powers. 444 BC Pericles founds the colony of Thurii in Southern Italy. c. 443 BC Herodotus is one of its citizens. Nehemiah completes the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem. 443 BC Pericles is elected Athenian general for fifteen years. 443 BC Athens is under the administration of Pericles (b.499-d.429 BC). Athens reaches the zenith of its greatness. 443-429 BC Ostracism of Thucydides, the Greek historian, by Pericles. 443 BC Syracuse becomes the chief power in Sicily. c. 443 BC Parthenon frieze. Athens, Greece. ca. 442-438 BC Sophocles (497-406 BC). Greek playwright. “Antigone”. c. 442 BC Polyclitus. Greek sculptor. “Canon”. Book on proportions written for sculptors. ca. 440 BC Polyclitus. “Doryphoros” (the spear bearer). ca. 440 BC Ideal athletic type by the greatest classical master of proportion. Temple of Hera. Agrigento. ca. 440 BC Doric style architecture. Athens under Pericles takes Samos. 440 BC Plebian revolt in Rome. 439 BC Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus is appointed dictator. Herodotus. Greek historian. Recites his “History of Athens”. 438 BC Mnesicles. “The Propylaea”. 437-432 BC Acropolis, Athens. Parthenon pediments. 437-32 BC Corcyra (Corfu) crushes Corinthian fleet at Leucimme. 435 BC Phidias completes his statue of Zeus (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) for the temple of Zeus, Olympia. ca. 435-430 BC Gold and ivory statue, now lost. One of the most famous statues of the ancient world. The Parthenon is completed (begun c. 448 BC) in Athens on the Acropolis. Designed by Ictinus and Callicrates. 432 BC It is 228 feet long and 102 feet wide. Doric style columns are 33 feet high. Roof height is 60 feet. Finest of all Greek buildings, a Doric style temple with Ionic style features. Revolt of the Potidaeans against Athens. 432 BC The Archidamian War. 431-421 BC Marks the start of the Second Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC). The Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta begins out of Spartan-Athenian rivalry and involves most of the Greek city-states. 431 BC Causes: The alliance of Corcyra with Athens against Sparta. The Athenian attack on Potidaea (432 BC). The Athenian commercial blockade of Megara. This led to Sparta’s demand for autonomy for all the cities of the league. “Funeral Oration” of Pericles. 431 BC Recorded by the Greek historian, Thucydides. Euripides (480-406 BC). Greek author. “Medea”. 431 BC Rome expands against the Aequi and the Volsci. 431 BC Malachi. The Book of Malachi. 430 BC Birth of Xenophon (b.430-d.354 BC). Greek. 430 BC Plague in Athens. 430-423 BC A terrifying plague from the east strikes Athens. Its spread could not be arrested, and people just died in the streets with no one to take care of them. One third of the population perished, and many others were left crippled. Possibly smallpox or typhus. The destruction of Athens. 430 BC Pericles (495-429 BC) dies of the plague. 429 BC The Acropolis is completed. 429 BC The birth of Plato (429-347 BC). 429 BC Euripides (480-406 BC). Greek author. “Hippolytus”. 428 BC Sophocles (c.497-406 BC). Greek author. “Oedipus Rex”. 427 BC Temple of Athena Nike. Acropolis, Athens. ca. 427-424 BC Ionic style columns. General war starts in Sicily. 427 BC The Melian affair. 425 BC The Dorian island of Melos is assessed tribute by Athens. Melos justifiably refuses to pay the tribute. Xerxes II becomes King of Persia. 424 BC He is assassinated two months later by his brother Sogdianus. Xerxes II is succeeded by Darius II (rules 424-404 BC). End of the plague at Athens. 423 BC Battle of Amphipolis. 422 BC (Part of the Peloponnesian War). Victory of the Spartans over the Athenians. Both Brasidas, the Spartan general, and Cleon, the Athenian leader, die in battle. Peace of Nicias. 421 BC Brings temporary respite from the Peloponnesian War fought between Sparta and Athens. Peace is negotiated by Nicias. Supposed to have lasted for 50 years. Alcibiades is in power at Athens. 421 BC Erechtheum on the Acropolis at Athens. ca. 421-406 BC Ionic style temple built on different levels. Porch of the caryatid is on the south side. Sparta quickly breaks the “Peace of Nicias” (421 BC) with Athens by making a treaty with Boeotia. 420 BC Temple of Apollo Epicurius. Bassae. ca. 420 BC Designed by Ictinus. This is a Doric style temple that is oriented north and south. Contains first Corinthian style column. Invasion of Gauls into northeastern Italy devastating Etruria. ca. 420 BC Euripides (480 BC-406 BC). Greek author. ”Electra”. Tragedy. c. 420 BC Sparta invades Argos and defeats the Athenians, the Argives, and the Mantineans at Mantinea. 418 BC Athens tries to pressure the island of Melos into its empire. Melos refuses. Capture of the island of Melos by Athens. 416 BC The destruction of the Dorian island of Melos by Athens. Death of Nehemiah. c.415 BC Jewish High Priests rule under Persian authority. Euripides (480-406 BC). Greek writer. “The Trojan Women”. 415 BC Segesta in Sicily asks Athens for aid in its military problems against Syracuse and Selinus. 415 BC Athens decides on a military expedition to Sicily (415-413 BC) under Alcibiades, Lamachus, and Nicias. 415 BC Athens prepares to send an ill fated expedition to Sicily. 415 BC Renewal of the war between Athens and Sparta. The Athenians invade the island of Sicily. 415 BC Accusal of Alcibiades of sacrilege by the Athenians during his absence (mutilation of the Hermae). 415 BC Withdrawal of Alcibiades from the Sicilian expedition. Alcibiades changes his allegiance from Athens to the Spartans. Battle of Syracuse. 415 BC-413 BC Attempted siege of Syracuse, Sicily by the Athenians. Athens is defeated by the Syracusans and a Spartan contingent under Gylippus to aid them. Decelean War also called the Ionian War (414-404 BC). 414 BC Peloponnesian War enters into its decisive stage. Euripides. “Iphigenia in Tauris”. c. 414 BC Athenian attack on Sicily fails. 413 BC As a result of the defeat of Athens at Syracuse, Athens loses important land and sea forces in Sicily. Destruction of the Athenian fleet in the harbour of Syracuse. 413 BC Destruction of the Athenian army on the Asinaros. Execution of the Athenian general Nicias after the Sicilian disaster. 413 BC Greek prisoners are forced to work in stone quarries. Decline of Athenian power. Seizure of the Attic stronghold of Decelea by the Spartans during the Decelean War (414-404 BC). 413 BC Following the advice of Alcibiades, the Spartans occupy the fortress of Decelea in order to lay waste to the Athenian lands. Peloponnesian ships force Athens to end the siege of Miletus. 412 BC Treaty between Persia and Sparta. 412 BC Sparta recognizes Persian rule in Asia Minor, but not in Greece. Revolution in Athens. 411 BC “Government of the 5000” seizes power. Democracy is soon restored. Return of Alcibiades to Athens. Alcibiades is elected ”strategos”. 411 BC Battle of Cynossema. 411 BC Alcibiades sends a force of 76 triremes into the eastern Aegean Sea under Generals Thrasybulus and Theramenes. This fleet defeats the Peloponnesian navy commanded by Mindarus. Battle of Cyzicus (in Asia Minor). 410 BC Athenians led by Alcibiades defeat the Spartan fleet at Cyzicus. A Spartan peace offer is rejected. Hannibal (this is not the Hannibal of the future Punic Wars) and Himilco begin the Carthaginian invasion of Sicily (c. 409-341 BC). 409 BC Battle of Selinus-Himera. 409 BC Destruction of the Sicilian cities Selinus and Himera by some 50,000 Carthaginians under Hannibal (not the Hannibal of the Punic Wars). Founding of Rhodes. 408 BC Failure of the attempt of the Medes to throw off Persian rule. 408 BC Capture of Byzantium by the Athenians. 408 BC Alcibiades, Athenian general, quells revolt in subject states. 408 BC Battle of Notium. 407 BC (Part of the Peloponnesian War). Defeat of the Athenian fleet off Notium by the Peloponnesian fleet under the command of Lysander. Plato (429-347 BC). Becomes the student of Socrates (469-399 BC). 407 BC From 407 until the death of Socrates in 399 BC. Battle of the Arginusae Islands. 406 BC (Part of the Peloponnesian War). Athenian fleet under Conon defeats a Peloponnesian fleet under Callicratidas. Proves to be the last Athenian victory in the war. In spite of the plea of Socrates, eight leaders of the Athenian fleet are condemned to death (because shipwrecked crews had not been rescued). Battle of Acragas (Agrigentum). 406 BC Conquest of Acragas in Sicily by the Carthaginians. Battle of Aegospotami. 405 BC The Spartans under Lysander defeat the Athenian fleet off Aegospotami. Destruction of the Athenian fleet. This defeat will lead to the capture of Athens in 404 BC. Peace treaty between Carthage and Syracuse, Sicily. 405 BC Egypt declares its independence from the Persian Empire. 405 BC Euripides (480-406 BC). Greek author. “Iphigenia in Aulis”. Tragedy. Posthumous. 405 BC Veii (Rise of Rome). 405 BC-396 BC The Romans lay siege to the southern Etruscan stronghold of Veii, 12 miles north of Rome. The Romans will finally take Veii in 396 BC. Artaxerxes II. King of Persia. 404 BC-358 BC Revolt of his younger brother Cyrus, aided by Greeks (404 BC). Athens is forced to surrender to Sparta. Nov. 404 BC Theramenes surrenders Athens to the Spartan general Lysander. End of the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. 404 BC Sparta is victorious. End of the Athenian Empire. 404 BC Murder of Alcibiades while he is in exile by order of Sparta. 404 BC Spartan Empire. 404-371 BC Sparta is now the leading Greek power. Sparta is supreme in the Greek territories. Egypt very briefly regains its independence from the Persian Empire under Pharaoh Amyrtaeus of Sais. 404-399 BC Egypt had fallen to the Persians under Cambyses II in 525 BC. Restoration of Athenian democracy by Pausanius. 403 BC Expulsion of the thirty Tyrants by Thrasybulus. Cyrus the Younger gathers his army at Sardis. 401 BC Battle of Cunaxa. 401 BC Artaxerxes II Mnemnon of Persia defeats his rebellious brother Cyrus the Younger, the satrap of Anatolia, near Babylon at Cunaxa. Cyrus the Younger is killed in battle. “Retreat of the Ten Thousand” (led by Xenophon). c. 401 BC Xenophon’s Greek army who were on the side of Cyrus the Younger, successfully withdraw to the Black Sea after the defeat of Cyrus the Younger at the Battle of Cunaxa. Only half of Xenophon’s band will survive the 4,000 mile retreat that takes two years. Plato (429-347 BC). Greek philosopher. Writes the Dialogues: “Gorgias”, “Apology”, “Crito”, “Phaedo”, “Republic”, “Phaedrus”, “The Symposium”, “Xenophon”, “Laws”, etc. c.400-347 BC Sparta declares war on Tissaphernes, Persian general. Tissaphernes besieges Cyme. 400 BC Etruscan bronze statue of Mars. 400 BC The Celtics (Celts) spread throughout Bohemia, the Carpathians, and the Ukraine. c. 400 BC War of the Spartans against Persia. 399-394 BC Under Agesilaus, Sparta renews the war to free the Ionian cities. Death of Socrates. 399 BC Socrates, Greek philosopher, is condemned to death by the Athenian state. He is made to drink hemlock (dropwort). Artaxerxes II. King of Persia. Part of the War between Persia and Greece. 398 BC Egypt and Cyprus assist Greece in the war against the Persian Empire. Return of Ezra to Jerusalem. 397 BC Dionysius I of Syracuse (432-367 BC). Fights war with Carthage. 397-392 BC Decay of Etruscan power in the Po valley as a result of Celtic incursions. 396 BC Destruction of Messana (Messina), located in northeast Sicily, by the Carthaginians. 396 BC Marcus Furius Camillus. Roman general. In a determined assault conquers the Etruscan stronghold, the city of Veii. Ends Etruscan power in central Italy. 396 BC The Romans conquer the important Etruscan city of Veii after a ten year siege they began in 405 BC. Formation of a coalition of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos against Sparta. 395 BC The Corinthian War. 395-387 BC Persia supports the allied Greek states Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos against Sparta. Battle of Haliartus. 395 BC Lysander marches a Spartan army into Boeotia to Haliartus. The Spartans are defeated by the Boeotians and a force of Thebans. Lysander is killed in battle. Battle of Nemea (also known as the Battle of Corinth). 394 BC (Part of the Corinthian War). Fought between 14,000 Spartans and 26,000 Athenians, Corinthians, Thebans, and Argives. The allies are defeated by the Spartans, losing twice as man men as the Spartans. The Spartans are obliged to retire, leaving the Isthmus in their possession. Battle of Coronea. August 394 BC (Part of the Corinthian War). Fought between the Athenians, Corinthians, Thebans, and Argives, and the Spartan general Agesilaus II. The Spartans defeat the allies after a desperate struggle. The Spartans, however, suffer so severely that Agesilaus is forced to evacuate Boeotia. Because of the attempted reorganization of the Athenian cities and the reconstruction of the fortress Athens-Piraeus, Persia and Sparta negotiated: the Bosporus was blockaded by a Persian-Spartan fleet in order to cut off Athenian grain imports from southern Russia. 394 BC Battle of Cnidus. 394 BC (Part of the Corinthian War). Fought between 120 Spartan triremes under Pisander and a superior Persian fleet under Pharnabazus, and Conan the Athenian. Conan had reorganized the Persian fleet. Pisander is defeated and killed, and his Spartan fleet is destroyed. Persia re-establishes its power in the Greek cities of Asia Minor. The naval power of Sparta is destroyed. Rebuilding of Athenian power in the Aegean by the leaders of Athens. 392 BC Marcus Furius Camillus. Roman general. Brings all of Etruria (Etruscans) under Roman rule. 391 BC Battle of Lechaeum. 391 BC (Part of the Corinthian War). Invasion of Italy by the Gauls. 390 BC Battle of Allia. 390 BC (Gallic invasion of Rome). Rome is invaded and sacked by the Gauls (a Celtic people) from northern Italy under Brennus. The Gauls invade, capture, sack, and burn Rome. The barbarians however, are fought off and withdraw (“Vae victis”). Regain of control of parts of the Aegean Sea by the Athenian navy. 389 BC Marcus Furius Camillus. Roman general. Rebuilding of Rome after the invasion of the horde of Gauls. 387 BC M.F. Camillus begins to rebuild the city of Rome. The King’s Peace (also called the Peace of Antalcidas). 387 BC End of the Corinthian War (395-387 BC). Peace between Athens and Sparta is mediated by the Persian king. The Greek cities of Asia Minor come under the rule of Persia. The remaining Greek cities receive autonomy to be guaranteed by Sparta. Plato (429-347 BC). “The Symposium”. 387 BC Dionysius I of Syracuse (432-367 BC). Siege and capture of Rhegium after a long siege. 386 BC Artaxerxes II of Persia is at war with Egypt. 385-383 BC Plato (429-347 BC). Founds the Academy in Athens. 385 BC The Academy is considered the first university in the Western world. The Birth of Aristotle of Stagira (384-322 BC). 384 BC M. Manlius Capitolinus is accused of royal ambitions. He is thrown from the Tarpeian rock. 384 BC Second war of Dionysius I of Syracuse with Carthage. 383 BC Occupation of the Theban citadel, the Cadmeia, by the Spartans. 382 BC Last native dynasty of Egypt begins. 380 BC The XXXth dynasty (380-343 BC). Plato (429-347 BC). “Phaedo”. 379 BC Plato expresses his belief in the existence and immortality of the soul. Dionysius I of Syracuse takes Crotona (Croton). 379 BC Liberation of Thebes. 379 BC Massacre of the Spartan tyrants at Thebes by Epaminondas and Peleopidas. War between Thebes and Sparta. 379-362 BC Thebes, a Greek city state, largely led by Epaminondas, establishes a democracy. 378 BC Formation of the Second Athenian Naval League against Spartan encroachments. 377 BC Athens is joined by Thebes and other city states. Battle of Naxos. 376 BC (Greek City States’ Wars). Athenian victory over Sparta off the island of Naxos. Artaxerxes II sends a Persian army against Egypt with no success. Egypt repulses the attack made by Persia. 373 BC Birth of Mencius in China. Chinese philosopher. 372 BC General peace made between Sparta and the Athenian League. 371 BC The peace however will not last to the end of the year. Battle of Leuctra. July 371 BC (Part of Greek City States’ War). Defeat of the Spartan army by Epaminondas, Theban commander. Epaminondas uses the “oblique battle order”. This first defeat of a Spartan army in open battle marks the onset of the decline of Sparta. Epaminondas of Thebes destroys Sparta’s prestige. The Thebans advance on to Laconia. Thebes is supreme in Greece. Xenophon (430-354 BC). Greek general. “Anabasis”. 371 BC Xenophon provides a first hand account of the campaigns of Cyrus the Younger. Includes a description of the 4,000 mile retreat of the 10,000 (Greeks) to the sea. The Greeks were mercenaries fighting for Cyrus the Younger. Persian satrap suppresses civil war of the Hebrews. 370 BC Thebes, Greek city state, forms the Arcadian League (370-362 BC). 370 BC Purpose is to balance the power of Sparta. Liberation of Messenia and Arcadia from Spartan control by Thebes, a Greek city state. 370 BC Alliance of Sparta and Athens is formed against Thebes, which was building its own naval fleet. 369 BC Birth of Chuang Tzu (369-286 BC). 369 BC Chinese philosopher. Taoism. Thebes founds the cities of Messene and Megalopolis and unifies almost all of Thessaly. c. 369 BC Third war of Dionysius I of Syracuse with Carthage. 368 BC Licinian Laws are passed in Rome. 367 BC Licinius and Sextius, Roman tribunes, put through reform measures that open one consulship to plebeians. Aristotle (384-322 BC). Joins the Academy of Plato (429-347 BC). c. 367 BC Rome is at war with the Gauls. 367-349 BC First Plebeian is elected to the office of Consul in Rome. 366 BC Temple of Concordia is built in Rome by Camillus. 366 BC Outbreak of renewed insurrections in Persian controlled Asia Minor. Egypt joins the rebels and invades Syria. c. 366-360 BC First drama is produced in Rome. 365 BC Battle of Cynoscephalae. 364 BC Thebes is defeated by Thessaly. Dissolution of the Arcadian League. 362 BC Battle of Mantinea. 362 BC (Part of the Greek City States’ War). The Thebans defeat Sparta and Athens. Epaminondas, the Theban general, is wounded in battle and dies fighting the coalition including Athens and Sparta. End of the Theban hegemony in Greece. Rome subdues the Latins in a revolt. 362-345 BC Egypt makes a treaty with Sparta vs. the Persians. 361 BC The Carthaginians form settlements in Spain. 360 BC Persian invasions of Egypt. 359-342 BC Nectanebo II, last native king of Egypt. Philip II becomes King of Macedonia (Macedon). 359 BC Philip II rules 359-336 BC. Artaxerxes III seizes the throne of Persia. Rules 358-338 BC. 358 BC Persian King Artaxerxes III begins to strengthen royal power over his provinces. Unification of Macedonia under Philip II. 358 BC Philip II of Macedonia conquers Amphipolis with an army reorganized using infantry phalanx. Rise of Macedonian power under Philip II. 358 BC The Social War. 357-355 BC Caused by the refusal of Byzantium, Chios, Cos, and Rhodes to pay protection money to Athens. Birth of Alexander of Macedonia (356-323 BC). 356 BC Alexander is the son of Philip II and Olympia of Macedonia. New Temple at Ephesus is begun on an even grander scale than the first. c. 356 BC Building of the first Wall of China, against invaders. c. 356 BC Athens loses the Social War (357-355 BC). 355 BC Outbreak of the Third "Sacred War" (355-346 BC). 355 BC Fought by Thebes against the Phocians, who seized Delphi. Caused by the dispute been Phocis and Thebes over the guardianship of the temple at Delphi. Conquest of Thessaly by Philip II, King of Macedonia. 352 BC Artaxerxes III. King of Persia. Sends an expedition against Egypt which fails. c.351 BC This leads to a wave of revolts in the western empire. Completion of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. c.350 BC This is the Tomb of Mausolus of Caria in Asia Minor. Becomes one of the wonders of the ancient world. Built c.359-350 BC Demosthenes. Athenian statesman. Fearing Philip II of Macedon’s expansionist plans, draws Athens into war against Philip. c. 350 BC Demosthenes delivers a series of "Philippics" against Philip II. The Phoenician cities of Sidon, Tyre, Aradus, and Byblus secede from the Persian Empire. c. 350 BC The Gauls leave Southern France and settle in Northern Italy. c. 350 BC Revolt of the Jews against Artaxerxes III, King of Persia. c. 350 BC The Temple of Jerusalem is destroyed by the Persians. c. 350 BC Heraclidus, a student of Plato, teaches the heliocentric theory of the solar system. c. 350 BC Pamphilus. Greek painter. Teaches that without mathematics and geometry no perfect art can exist. c. 350 BC The Greek theatre of Epidaurus is built. c. 350 BC Appearance of Corinthian style columns in Greek architecture. c. 350 BC Second treaty between Rome and Carthage (trade agreement). 348 BC Philip II of Macedon. Conquest of the cities of Chalcidice. 348 BC Conquest and razing of Olynthus by Philip II of Macedon. 348 BC Peace of Philocrates. 346 BC Between Athens and Macedonia. Philip II of Macedon joins on the side of the Thebans in the "Third Sacred War" (355-346 BC) fought against the Phocians. 346 BC Conquest of Phocis by Philip II of Macedon. 346 BC Aristotle (384-322 BC). Appointed to be the teacher of the future Alexander the Great, the son of Philip II, King of Macedon. 343 BC The First Samnite War. 343-341 BC Roman wars with the Samnites (Samnium). Greek cities of Sicily are freed from Carthage. 343 BC Persian reconquest of Egypt (until 332 BC). 342 BC Artaxerxes III, King of Persia, himself leads his armies against Egypt. In a brilliant campaign Artaxerxes III of Persia finally conquers Egypt. Conquest of Thrace by Philip II of Macedonia. 342 BC Birth of Epicurus of Samos. Greek philosopher. 342-271 BC Founder of Epicureanism. The Second Latin War. 340-338 BC Rome will defeat the revolting Latin allies. Will end in the dissolution of the Latin League and subordination of all of its members. Aristotle (384-322 BC). Lays down the foundations of the theory of music. c. 340 BC Praxagoras of Cos. Discovers the difference between arteries and veins. c. 340 BC Philip II of Macedon besieges Byzantium. 340 BC Thracian expedition of Philip II of Macedon. 339 BC Conquest of Greek city states by Philip II of Macedonia. 338-337 BC Macedonian conquests. 338-332 BC Almost 200,000 are killed in battle. Battle of Chaeronea. September 1, 338 BC (Part of Macedonian Conquests). Philip II of Macedon defeats Athens, Thebes, and other Greek city-states at the Battle of Chaeronea. Philip II is now master of all of Greece. Philip's victory over the Greeks was decided by the cavalry led by his son Alexander (age 18). Macedonia, under Philip II, is the supreme state in Greece. 338 BC Battle of Pedum. 338 BC Roman generals Gaius Maenius and Lucius Furius Camillus defeat the combined Latin armies of Antium, Lanuvium, Aricia, and Velitrae. Battle of Trifanum. 338 BC (Part of the Latin War). Roman general T. Manlius Torquatus wins a decisive victory over the Latins. The Romans annex all of Latium (the land of the Latins). End of the Latin War (340-338 BC). Assassination of Artaxerxes III of Persia. Accession of Arses to the Persian throne. 338 BC Corinthian League. 337 BC Formation of the Corinthian League of all Greek cities (with the exception of Sparta) under the patronage of Philip II, King of Macedon. Organization: a League Council at Corinth, the Macedonian king is named leader (hegemon) and supreme general, autonomy of all members of the League. Philip II of Macedonia. Makes decision for war against the Persian Empire. 337 BC Mithridates I of Pontus becomes independent of Persia. 337 BC Macedonian troops cross into Asia. 336 BC Assassination of Arses of Persia. 336 BC Accession of Darius III Codomannus, King of Persia. Darius III rules 336-330 BC. Assassination of Philip II of Macedonia at Aegae. 336 BC His son Alexander III becomes King of Macedonia (336-323 BC). Beginning of the reign of Alexander III of Macedon, the son of Philip II. Alexander rules from 336 until his death in 323 BC. 336 BC Birth of Zeno of Citium (336-263 BC). Greek philosopher. 336 BC Founder of Stoicism. Aristotle of Stagira (384-322 BC). Returns to Athens and founds his school in Lyceum at Athens. 335 BC It is known as the Peripatetic School from his practice of lecturing in a covered portico (peripatos). Alexander of Macedon. Crushes revolts of Athens, Thebes, and other Greek cities. 335 BC The destruction of Thebes, Egypt by Alexander of Macedon and the enslavement of its inhabitants. 335 BC Alexander of Macedon is in Thrace. 335 BC Temple of Athena Polias in Priene. 334 BC Dedicated by Alexander the Great. This is a finely ornamented Ionic style temple constructed according to precise mathematical measurements. Beginning of Alexander's Persian campaign. 334 BC A Greek war of revenge and a Macedonian war of conquest. Alexander has 40,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry. Alexander crosses the Hellespont and invades Asia Minor. May 334 BC Entrance of Alexander's Greco-Macedonian invasion force into Asia Minor. Alexander lands at the ancient city of Troy. 334 BC Battle of the Granicus River. June 334 BC Alexander the Great defeats the Persian satraps of Asia Minor under Darius III at the Granicus River in Asia Minor. Alexander uses the Macedonian "oblique battle order". Alexander takes the Greek cities of the coast of Asia Minor. 334 BC Sieges of Miletus (July) and Halicarnassus (August). Alexander takes Phrygia at Gordium. 333 BC Alexander cuts through the famous “Gordian knot". Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) experiences setbacks from the premature dissolution of the Ionian fleet. Summer 333 BC The Persians conquer Chios and Mytilene. Battle of Issus. November 333 BC Alexander defeats the Persians under Darius III at the Battle of Issus (using the "oblique battle order" once again) but does not give chase. Alexander captures the wife and children of Darius III of Persia. Alexander refuses Darius's offer of ransom and part of his empire. Phoenicia submits to Alexander the Great without any resistance except for Tyre (Lebanon). 333 BC Siege of Tyre. Jan.-July 332 BC Tyre falls to Alexander the Great after a seven month siege. End of the Phoenician Empire. Battle of Gaza. Sept.-Nov. 332 BC Fall of Palestine to Alexander. End of Persian rule in Palestine. Palestine had been under Persian rule since 538 BC. Palestine is now under the rule of Alexander the Great. Jerusalem is also taken. Palestine is under Greek domination. 332-198 BC Subjugation of Syria by Alexander. 332-331 BC Alexander invades and conquers Egypt from the Persians. Nov. 332 BC End of Persian rule in Egypt. Alexander the Great. Foundation of the great port of Alexandria, Egypt. 332-331 BC Campaign of Alexander the Great to the Siwa Oasis (Amonium) and the shrine of Zeus Ammon. 331 BC Alexander founds the city of Alexandria. April 331 BC Battle of Megalopolis. 331 BC Antipater of Macedon, Alexander’s governor of Greece, suppresses a Spartan uprising led by Agis III, King of Sparta. Sparta joins the Corinthian League. Alexander renews his Persian campaign. 331 BC Battle of Arbela (also called the Battle of Gaugamela). Oct. 1, 331 BC After crossing the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, 47,000 Macedonians and Greeks under Alexander defeat 250,000 Persian forces on a plain near Arbela in Mesopotamia. Once again, Alexander uses the “oblique battle order”. Darius III, King of Persia, flees for his life. End of the Persian Empire. Occupation of Pasargadae and Ecbatana by Alexander. 331 BC Alexander the Great conquers Babylon. 331 BC Entrance of Alexander into Babylon and Susa. Conquers the Fertile Crescent (Persian) and all of Mesopotamia. Alexander reaches Persepolis. Jan. 330 BC Destruction of Persepolis. 330 BC Alexander burns the palace buildings at Persepolis in revenge for the destruction of Athens and the Acropolis by the Persians in 480 BC. Seizure of the Persian gold treasures (50,000 talents). 330 BC Alexander is now in complete control of Persia. Apelles of Colophon, Greek painter, and Lysippus of Sicyon, Greek sculptor, are at the court of Alexander the Great. 330 BC Alexander conquers the whole of Central Asia. 330 BC Occupation of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis by Alexander the Great. Murder of Darius III, King of Persia, by Bessus, a cousin. July 330 BC Proclamation of Alexander the Great as King of Asia. 330 BC Polyclitus the Younger. Theater at Epidaurus. ca. 330 BC This is probably the most perfect and best preserved of the Greek theaters. Praxiteles. Greek sculptor. “Hermes and the Infant Dionysus”. ca. 330 BC From the Temple of Hera, Olympia. Pythias. Greek explorer. Circumnavigation of Britain. c. 330 BC Temple of Apollo at Didyma in Asia Minor is begun. ca. 330 BC A gigantic temple containing an open air court, still unfinished in the early AD period - 40 AD. Complete subjugation of the Vosci by the Romans (Roman Republic) after the seizure of Privernum. 329 BC Subjugation of what is eastern Persia by Alexander. 329 BC Alexander the Great conquers Bactria and Sogdiana. 328 BC Introduction of Persian court ceremonial (proskynesis = prostration) is opposed by Alexander’s Greek and Macedonian retinue. 328 BC Alexander kills Clitus, the friend of his youth, in a fit of anger. 328 BC Marriage of Alexander the Great to Roxane, the daughter of Sogdian (Bactrian) prince.327 BC Execution of the historian Callisthenes (a nephew of Aristotle) by Alexander. 327 BC Alexander begins his invasion of India. 327 BC The Indian Campaign of Alexander is to reach the southern and eastern limits of the inhabited world. Alexander will reach as far as the Indus River valley and the Punjab. Alexander crosses the Hindu Kush mountains. May 329 BC Alexander the Great invades the Punjab. 326 BC Battle of Hydaspes River (Jhelum River). May 326 BC This is the last major battle of Alexander the Great. The Greeks and Macedonians defeat a 50,000 man Indian army that is led by Porus, in northern India. Alexander adds this Indian territory to his empire. At the Beas River, Alexander’s exhausted troops refuse to go any further east. Alexander is forced to turn back by his generals. 326 BC Construction of a fleet and a journey south down the Indus River. Return march of the army is under Alexander and Craterus through Gedrosia and Carmania Persepolis. Return journey of the fleet under Nearchus travels along the coasts of the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf to the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Alexander is in Gedrosia. Sept. 325 BC Timotheus of Miletus. “Persae” (“The Persians”). c. 325 BC Earliest extant papyrus that is written in Greek. Pytheas of Massalia. Greek explorer. Sails with a crew of 25 men to the British Isles. c. 325 BC Visits Cornwall, continues to Scotland, and possibly even Iceland or Norway. Alexander meets Nearchus in Carmania. Jan. 324 BC Alexander is at Ecbatana. Oct. 324 BC Alexander is in Babylon. April-May 323 BC Reorganization of Alexander's empire at Babylon. 323 BC The three parts of his empire are brought together under Alexander in personal union. He is Persian king in Asia, “hegemon” of the Corinthian League in Greece, and the King of Macedonia. The Death of Alexander the Great. June 13, 323 BC While preparing for further campaigns against Carthage and in the Western Mediterranean, Alexander dies of fever at Babylon. He is 33 years old. "The name of Alexander stands for the end of an epoch of world history and the beginning of a new one" (J.G. Droysen). Alexander's Empire begins to be broken up. Division of Alexander’s realms of power. 323 BC Perdiccas becomes regent for Philip III, King of Macedonia. Antipater takes charge of Macedonia and Greece. General Antigonus rules Phrygia and Lycia. Antigonus founds the Antigonid Dynasty (323-167 BC). Greek general Ptolemy Soter becomes the ruler of Egypt, Judea, and part of Syria. Lysimachus rules over Asia Minor. The Wars of the Diadochi. 323-280 BC After the death of Alexander the Great, the struggle for power began between his successors (the “Diadochi”). Alexander’s generals Antigonus, Craterus, and Ptolemy refuse to give their allegiance to Perdiccas, the regent for Philip III, King of Macedonia. The “Diadochi” fight over Alexander’s empire. Ptolemy I Soter, the son of Lagus. The Ptolemies, a Greek dynasty, will rule Egypt from 323 BC until the death of Cleopatra in 30 BC. 323 BC Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt. 323-30 BC The Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt is a Greek dynasty. Palestine is annexed with Phoenicia to Syria. 323 BC The death of Demosthenes, Greek statesman, by suicide. 322 BC Destruction of the Athenian fleet at Amorgos by Macedonia. 322 BC Aristotle (384-322 BC). Greek philosopher and a student of Plato, dies. 322 BC Reign of Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the Mauryan Dynasty (321-184 BC) and attempted to unite India. 321-297 BC Chandragupta Maurya reconquers northern India from the Macedonians. Perdiccas, the regent for Philip III, King of Macedonia, is killed. 321 BC Antipater, is regent of the Greek empire. 321 BC The Kingdom of Seleucidae (Seleucid Empire), is founded by Seleucus Nicator, who had been a general of Alexander the Great. 321 BC Rules 321 to 281 BC. Seleucas receives Babylon as his province. The Seleucid Empire (321-64 BC) will fall to the Romans in 64 BC. Second Roman-Samnite War. 321-305 BC Renewal of Roman War with the Samnites. Battle of Caudine Forks. 321 BC (Part of the Second Samnite War). The Romans are surrounded and completely beaten by the Samnites at the Battle of Caudine Forks. The Romans are allowed to withdraw under humiliating circumstances (under the yoke). Defeat of the Samnites by the Romans at Luceria. 320 BC Invasion and annexation of Syria by Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt. 320 BC Ptolemy I Soter captures Jerusalem. Ptolemy I Soter makes himself master of Cyprus. 320 BC Libya becomes an Egyptian province under Ptolemy I Soter. 320 BC Birth of Aristarchus of Samos (320-230 BC). 320 BC Aristoxenus. Defines rhythm as tripartite: speech, melody, and movement. c. 320 BC Restoration of liberty to Greek cities by Polysperchon, the successor of Antipater. 319 BC Antigonus, ruler of Macedonia, takes Lydia and Phrygia. 319 BC Agathocles is leader of Syracuse, Sicily. 319-313 BC Demetrius Phalerus governs the city of Athens. 317 BC Carthage and Syracuse are at war. 317 BC Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great, is put to death by Cassander, the son of Antipater, for killings that she had ordered. 316 BC Cassander, the son of Antipater. Founding of Thessalonica (Salonika). 316 BC Rebuilding of Thebes by Cassander, the son of Antipater. 315 BC Ptolemy Soter, Cassander, Lysimachus, and Seleucus Nicator combine forces against Antigonus, the ruler of Macedonia. 315 BC Palestine is under the rule of the Seleucids of Syria. 314 BC Syria is ruled by Seleucus Nicator, one of Alexander’s generals. 312 BC Seleucus Nicator, one of Alexander’s generals, takes Babylon from Antigonus, the ruler of Macedonia. c. 312 BC Seleucus Nicator attempts to recover provinces in India that had been conquered by Alexander the Great. 312-306 BC Appius Claudius Caecus. Begins construction on the Via Appia (the Appian Way), the great road connecting Rome to Caprua and later to Brindisi. 312 BC Appius Claudius Caecus. Completes construction of the Aqua Appia (Appian aqueduct). 312 BC Capture of the city of Jerusalem by Ptolemy I Soter, one of Alexander’s generals. 312 BC Judea is put under the rule of Antigonus I. 312 BC Until 301 BC. Colony of Jews in Alexandria, Egypt. 312 BC End of civil wars in Alexander’s empire. 311 BC Macedonia goes to Cassander as regent. Thrace goes to Lysimachus. Egypt is under Ptolemy I Soter. Asia goes to Antigonus. Battle of the Himera River. 311 BC The Carthaginians under Hamilcar besiege Syracuse in Sicily and defeat Agathocles, the ruler of Syracuse. Battle of the Vadimonian Lake (aka the Battle of Lake Vadimo). 310 BC Fought between the Roman Republic and the Etruscans. The Romans under Quintus Fabius Maximus defeat the Etruscans. The Etruscans will never rise up from this defeat. Agathocles of Syracuse invades Carthaginian territory in northern Africa to carry the war to Carthage. 310 BC Conquest of the Etruscan city of Perusia (modern day Perugia) by Roman forces. 309 BC Antigonus I of Macedonia and his son Demetrius I declare themselves kings of Macedonia in succession to Alexander the Great. 307 BC Demetrius Poliocertes, King of Macedonia, seizes the city of Athens from Cassander. 307 BC Agathocles of Syracuse returns back to Syracuse. He will make peace with Carthage the following year. 307 BC Lysimachus seizes the throne of Thrace. 307 BC Ptolemy I Soter. Greek ruler of Egypt. Begins construction of the Museum and the great Library of Alexandria in Egypt. 307 BC Third Roman Treaty with Carthage. 306 BC Agathocles of Syracuse in Sicily makes peace with Carthage. 306 BC Antigonus I assumes the title of King of Macedonia. 306 BC Alexander’s successors take the title of king. 305 BC Ptolemy I Soter declares himself King of Egypt as the founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BC). 305 BC Seleucus I Nicator himself King in Syria, as the founder of the Seleucid Empire (321-64 BC) centered in Babylon and Syria. Battle of Bovianum (the capital of Samnium). 305 BC The Samnites suffer a crushing defeat at the hands of Roman general Titus Minucius. End of the Second Samnite War (321-305 BC). Seleucus I Nicator attempts to invade India. 305 BC Seleucus I Nicator cedes his claim on India to Chandragupta in exchange for 500 war elephants. 304 BC Demetrius Poliocertes, general of the Grecia states, opposes Cassander of Macedonia. 303 BC Cassander, claims to be king of Macedonia. 302 BC Battle of Ipsus. 301 BC (Part of the Wars of the Diadochi). Great battle fought between the successors of Alexander the Great for the control of Asia Minor. The 30,000 man army of Antigonus I is defeated by an allied force under Seleucus I Nicator, Lysimachus of Thrace, Antiochus, and Cassander. Antigonus I, age 81, is killed in battle. Alexander’s empire is again divided into four chief parts. Palestine is under Egyptian rule (Ptolemy I Soter) once again. Cassander wins control of Macedonia which continues to dominate all of Greece. Lysimachus becomes ruler of Thrace and most of Asia Minor. Seleucus I Nicator of Syria. After the Battle of Ipsus, gains the provinces of Syria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. 301 BC Canon of the Old Testament under Simon the Just. 300 BC Euclid is established in the Greek city of Alexandria, Egypt. c.300 BC Treaty between the Roman Republic and Carthage. 300 BC Invasion of China by savage Huns (Xiongnu). ca.300 BC Development of the Mayan calendar at Yucatan. ca.300 BC Gives the Solar Year 365.24 days and the Lunar Month 29.52 days. This calendar is considered to be more exact than the older calendars of Babylon, Assyria, Egypt, and even Greece. Third Samnite War. 298-290 BC Rome vs. Samnium. Battle of Camerinum. The Samnites, Lucanians, Gauls, and Etruscans defeat the Romans. 298 BC Death of Cassander, King of Macedonia. 296 BC Followed by quarrels of his two sons, Antipater and Alexander. Battle of Sentinum. 295 BC (Part of the Third Samnite War). Romans under Quintus Fabius Maximus defeat the Etruscans, Sabines, Gauls, and Samnites at Sentinum. Euclid. c.295 BC “Optica.” Euclid (c. 320-230 BC). “The Elements of Geometry”. c. 295 BC Provides the first formal statement of the principles of Geometry. Siege of Athens by Demetrius I Poliorcetes, the previously exiled king of Macedonia. 294 BC Demetrius Poliorcetes becomes King of Macedonia (294-288 BC). Romans under Lucius Papirius Cursor defeat the Samnites at Aguilonia. Roman Peace is made with the Etruscans. The Etruscans are now subject to the Roman Republic. 293 BC Colossus of Rhodes (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World). A bronze statue, more than 100 feet tall, of the sun god, Helios, was constructed on a promontory overlooking harbor. By Chares. c. 290-275 BC End of the Third Samnite War (298-290 BC). 290 BC Roman victory over the Samnites in Central Italy. Roman Peace with the Samnites, who are obliged to do military service. Romans take control of Samnium in Italy. Messina is seized by Mamertine pirates. 289 BC Syracuse in Sicily is under the Greek King Hiero. Defeat of the Romans by the Senones, a Gaulish tribe, at Arretium. 289 BC Athens revolts against Demetrius Poliorcetes, King of Macedon. 287 BC Lysimachus and Pyrrhus of Epirus attack Demetrius Poliorcetes. 287 BC Demetrius I of Macedonia is deposed by an army revolt and replaced by Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. Lysimachus, one of Alexander’s former generals, drives Pyrrhus out of Macedonia. Lex Hortensia (Law of Hortenius). 287 BC The Roman ruler Quintus Hortensius passes a law making the plebians legal equals of the patricians. End of the long struggle between the Patricians and Plebians in the Roman Republic. Birth of Archimedes of Syracuse (ca.287-212 BC). ca.287 BC Archimedes is the greatest mathematician and engineer of the BC era. Makes the following discoveries in mathematics and physics. Anticipation of integral calculus. “On Method.” Determination of the Specific Weight of Objects. Engines hurling projectiles during the defense of Syracuse against the Romans. Discovery of the laws of floating bodies establishing the study of hydrostatics. The Library of Alexandria in Egypt is completed. c.286 BC Rome defeats the Gauls, Etruscans, and Greeks, and occupies other Greek cities in Italy, except for Tarentum. 285-282 BC Abdication of Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt. 285 BC He is succeeded by his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Ptolemy II inherits Egypt from his father, Ptolemy I Soter. Ptolemy II Philadelphus rules 285 to 247 BC. Lysimachus, one of Alexander’s former generals, takes over all of Macedonia and consolidates his position in Greece. 284 BC Livius Andronicus. 284-204 BC Translator of the Odyssey from Greek into Latin. Capture of Corsica by the Romans. 283 BC Ptolemy I Soter dies. 283 BC Death of Demetrius Poliorcetes. 283 BC Outbreak of the Tarentine (Pyrrhic) Wars (282-272 BC). 282 BC Roman War with Tarentum. Tarentum attacks Thurii and starts Rome’s war with Pyrrhus of Epirus. Tarentum’s sphere of interest is encroached upon by Roman assistance to Thurii (against the Lucanians), Locri, and Rhegium. Open war follows when a Roman fleet is attacked in the harbour of Tarentum, which it was not allowed to use by the terms of a treaty of 303. Battle of Corupedium. 281 BC (Part of the Wars of the Diadochi). Seleucus I defeats and kills Lysimachus, age 80 (Macedonia). Seleucus becomes undisputed master of Asia Minor. Formation of the Achaean League. 281 BC Seleucus I Nicator of Babylon and Syria is assassinated. 281 BC Seleucus I is the last of the generals of Alexander the Great. His son, Antiochus I Soter succeeds Seleucus I Nicator as the ruler of the Seleucid Empire (Syria). Antiochus I Soter rules the Seleucid Empire 281-261 BC. The Greeks of Sicily and Italy are alarmed at the spread of Roman power in Magna Graecia at the southern end of the Italian peninsula. They seek help from Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. 281 BC Landing of Pyrrhus, the King of Epirus, on the western coast of Lucania, Italy with an army of almost 30,000 men. 281 BC Battle of Heraclea. 280 BC Tarentum (modern Taranto) allies with Pyrrhus, the King of Epirus, and defeats the Romans at the Battle of Heraclea. Pyrrhus leads at the head of his army of over 25,000 mercenaries, 3,000 Thessalian mounted men, and 26 war elephants. The Bruttians, Lucians, and Samnites join forces with Pyrrhus. Mithridates. Establishment of the kingdom of Pontus on the Black Sea. ca.280 BC Sosthenes. Is elected “strategos” and conquers Macedon from the Seleucid Empire. Macedon will fall to the Romans in 146 BC. 280 BC Colossus of Rhodes is built. ca.280 BC Lighthouse at Alexandria on the island of Pharos is built. c. 280-275 BC Battle of Ausculum. 279 BC Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, defeats the Romans again at the Battle of Ausculum in their own territory. However, Pyrrhus of Epirus suffers great losses (“Pyrrhic victory”). His peace offer, demanding the vacating of Graecia Magna (lower Italy) is rejected by the Roman Senate. Carthage forms an alliance with Rome in order to repel Pyrrhus of Epirus. Carthage sends an auxiliary fleet to Ostia, under the leadership of Mago. Pyrrhus of Epirus lands in Sicily. 278 BC Pyrrhus of Epirus. 278-275 BC Successful campaigns of Pyrrhus against the Carthaginians in Sicily. Called by the Greek cities, he conquered all the Carthaginian cities with the exception of Lilybaeum. His aim to create a kingdom of Sicily and southern Italy was thwarted by the opposition of the Greek cities and their surreptitious alliance with Carthage. Pyrrhus returned to Italy after suffering great losses. Invasion of Macedonia and Greece by the barbarian Gauls. c.278 BC The Gauls invade Asia Minor. 277 BC The Gauls found the kingdom of Galatia in Asia Minor. Antigonus II Gonatus of Macedon. Defeats the Celts at Lysimacheia. 277 BC Antigonus II Gonatas, becomes King of Macedonia. 276 BC He is a descendant of Antigonus I, one of Alexander’s generals. He is master of all of Greece except for Sparta. Rules 276-239 BC. Antigonus II founds the Antigonid Dynasty in Macedonia. The Antigonid Dynasty in Macedonia will last 276-167 BC. Hiero II. Greek King of Syracuse. 275-215 BC Battle of Beneventum. 275 BC After a disastrous repulse by the Carthaginian fleet during an attack upon the Roman camp at Beneventum, Pyrrhus is defeated by the Romans. Pyrrhus is forced to return back to Epirus. Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. Leaves Italy from the city of Rhegium and returns back to Greece. 275 BC Carthage takes all of Sicily except for the eastern end. The Romans come all the way down southern Italy. Romans capture the Greek colonies in southern Italy (Graecia Magna). End of history of Babylon. 275 BC The Babylonians re-establish the new city of Seleucia. Completion of the lighthouse at Pharos, Alexandria, Egypt. c.275 BC Pyrrhus of Epirus invades Macedonia, defeats Antigunos II Gonatas, and is proclaimed king. 274 BC First Syrian War. 274-271 BC Ptolemy II, of Egypt, and Antiochus II of the Seleucid Empire are at war. Asoka, Emperor in India, grandson of Chandragupta, rules the northern two thirds of India. Ashoka is a Mauryan emperor. c.274-236 BC Makes Buddhism the state religion. Suppresses Hinduism. Ptolemy II of Egypt. Sends ambassadors from Ptolemaic Egypt to the Roman Republic. 273 BC The Roman Republic sends an embassy to Ptolemaic Egypt. 272 BC Roman defeat of Tarentum (modern Taranto). 272 BC Peace after the surrender of Tarentum to the Romans. Romans conquer the Greek cities of central and southern Italy. These Greek cities become allies of the Roman Republic. Roman domination of Southern Italy is secured. End of the Roman War with Tarentum (282-272 BC). Romans continue the construction of the Via Appia (the Appian Way) from Capua to Tarentum and Brundisium. c.272 BC Death of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. 272 BC Pyrrhus besieges Sparta and Argos. Pyrrhus is killed. Antigonas is restored. Carthage comes to the aid of Hiero II, King of Syracuse, and puts a Carthaginian garrison at Messina, Sicily. 270 BC Roman wars with the Umbrians and Etruscans. 270-266 BC Rome will gain control of all of Italy. Hiero II, King of Syracuse. Suppresses the Mamertine pirates of Messina, Sicily. c. 269 BC Romans capture the city of Rhegium. 268 BC Conquest of Calabria by the Romans (the Roman Republic). 268 BC The Roman subjugation of Italy is completed. Chremonidean War. 266-262 BC Athens and Sparta are allied in war against Macedonia. First contact of the Romans with Greek medicine through Greek prisoners of wa 265 BC First gladiatorial games in Rome in the Forum. 264 BC The Mamertine pirates of Messina, Sicily, appeal to Rome. 264 BC The “Mamertines” (sons of Mars, Campanian mercenaries), occupying Messana, appeal to Rome for help against Hiero II, King of Syracuse. First Punic War (also called Carthaginian War). 264-241 BC Between Rome and Carthage. Fought over Sicily. Battle of Messina. 264 BC Rome dispatches a military expedition to Messina, Sicily, which marks the beginning of the First Punic (or Carthaginian) War against Carthage, a rich commercial seaport on what is now the Bay of Tunis. Following the landing of the Roman army, Syracuse and Carthage form an alliance against the Romans (Roman Republic). The Romans, under Appius Claudius Pulcher, defeat the combined armies of Syracuse (Hiero II) and Carthage, at Messana (Messina). The Romans capture Messina, Sicily. Messina becomes a free city under the protection of Rome. After the defeat of their armies at Messana, Hiero II, King of Syracuse, sues for peace and allies himself with the Romans. The Romans will conquer Sicily as far as Agrigentum (261 BC). Founding of the kingdom of Pergamon by Eumenes I. 263 BC Pergamum located in Asia Minor breaks away from Antiochus I of the Seleucid Empire (Syria). Eumenes I founds Pergamum’s Attalid Dynasty (263-133 BC). End of the Chremonidean War (266-262 BC). 262 BC Athens and Sparta fight in revolt against Antigonus of Macedonia. Antigonus takes Athens. Athens is left under Macedonian control. End of the independence of Athens. Antiochus II Theos. Rules the Seleucid Empire. 261-246 BC First Roman fleet (120 ships) is built. 260 BC Built by Gaius Duilius with the assistance of South Italian Greeks. Ships were modelled after a 5 oared Carthaginian vessel that they had found stranded. Rome begins to become a naval power. Spread of Ptolemaic (Greek Egypt) influence from Egypt down the Red Sea and into Arabia. 260 BC Battle of Mylae. 260 BC (Part of the First Punic War). Romans under Consul Gaius Duilius defeat Carthage at the naval Battle of Mylae in northwestern Sicily. With the invention of the boarding bridge, land war tactics are used by the Romans in naval warfare. Aristarchus of Samos (320-230 BC). Greek philosopher. c.260 BC Makes observations and calculations leading to the following conclusions. The Earth is much smaller than the Sun. The Earth rotates on an axis, an inclined axis of rotation. The Earth revolves around the Sun (heliocentric theory). Explanation of the seasons. Second Syrian War. 260-253 BC Ptolemy II of Egypt against Antiochus II of the Seleucid Empire and Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedonia. Antiochus II recovers some lost land in Asia Minor in the Second Syrian War against Ptolemy II of Egypt. Battle of Tyndaris (modern Tindari). 257 BC A Roman fleet under Gaius Atilius Regulus defeats Carthaginian fleet. Battle of Ecnomus. 256 BC (Part of the First Punic War). The Roman fleet defeats Carthage at the naval Battle of Cape Ecnomus. This victory enables the Romans to land in north Africa. Roman general Gaius Atilius Regillus lands an invasion force in north Africa near Carthage itself. The Romans advance to Carthage, which sued for peace, but then rejected the severe Roman peace conditions. Liberation of Athens by Antigonus II Gonatas. 255 BC Athens joins the Achaean League. 255 BC Battle of Tunes (modern Tunis). 255 BC (Part of the First Punic War). Utilizing cavalry and war elephants, the Carthaginians under Xanthippus, the Spartan general fighting for Carthage, are victorious over the Romans who are under Marcus Atilius Regulus. Roman general Regillus is captured near Carthage. A Roman fleet transporting the survivors is destroyed by a storm. The Romans for the moment give up naval warfare. However they conquer Sicily, except for the Carthaginian bases of Lilybaeum, Drepanum, and Eryx. Battle of Panormus. 254 BC (Part of the First Punic War). Cornelius Scipio’s newly built Roman fleet is victorious over Carthage at the harbor of Panormus (modern day Palermo), Sicily. Rome takes Panormus in Sicily. Peace between Ptolemaic Egypt and the Seleucid Empire (Syria). 253 BC Antiochus II of the Seleucid Empire marries Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy II of Egypt. Rome defeats Hasdrubal of Carthage. 251 BC Archimedes (287-212 BC). Greek mathematician. c. 250 BC “On the Sphere and the Cylinder”. Gives formulas for calculating the volume of a sphere and a cylinder. “Measurement of the Circle”. Gives an approximation of the value of “pi”. “On Floating Bodies”. Presents what is now called “Archimedes Principle” and begins the study of hydrostatics. Writes works on two and three dimensional geometry. Studies circles, spheres, and spirals. Siege of Lilybaeum by the Romans. 250-241 BC The fortress of Lilybaeum, located on the west coast of Sicily, is defended by a 10,000 man garrison. Diodotus I becomes king of an independent Bactria. 250 BC Invasion of Britain by La Tène, an Iron Age people. c. 250 BC Asoka, the ruler of the Maurya Empire in India, erects columns 40 feet high inscribed with his laws. c. 250 BC The Septuagint. ca.250 BC Translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek (Septuaginta). Another center of Judaism is developed in Egypt (Alexandria). Battle of Drepanum. 249 BC (Part of the First Punic War). Modern: Trapani, Sicily. Destruction of the Roman fleet by Carthaginian navy at Drepanum. Founding of the Kingdom of Parthia by Arsaces I (Arsores). 247 BC The Parthians revolted against the Seleucid Empire. The Parthian Empire will end in 226 AD. Reign of Arsaces I (Arsores) of Parthia. 247-217 BC Ptolemy III, Euergetes, King of Egypt. 247-221 BC Extends his empire by conquests in Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persia, Susiana, and Media. Extends his influence as far as Thrace and Macedonia. Hamilcar Barca, the father of Hannibal, takes command of the Carthaginian forces in Sicily. 247 BC Murder of Antiochus II Theos, ruler of the Seleucid Empire, by his wife. He is succeeded by his son Seleucus II Callinicus. 246 BC Seleucus II Callinicus rules 246-225 BC. Third Syrian War. 246-241 BC Seleucus II Callinicus, ruler of the Seleucid Empire (Syria), loses the east Mediterranean coast to Ptolemy III of Egypt. Capture of Corinth by Aratus of Sicyon. 243 BC Attalus I becomes King of Pergamum. 241 BC Battle of the Aegates Islands. March 10, 241 BC The Roman fleet under G. Lutatius Catulus defeats and destroys the Carthaginians off the Aegates (Egadi) Islands. Romans defeat Carthage at Lilybaeum, the chief Carthaginian city in Western Sicily. 241 BC Destruction of the Carthaginian fleet by the Romans. Carthage admits defeat. 241 BC Peace treaty between Rome and Carthage. Hamilcar Barca, the father of Hannibal, surrenders Sicily and the Lipari Islands to the Romans. End of the First Punic War (264-241 BC). Total number of war dead of the First Punic War (264-241 BC) is approximately 150,000 men. Sicilia (Sicily) becomes the first Roman province. 241 BC Mercenary War. 241 BC Revolt of Carthaginian mercenaries. Will be crushed by Hamilcar Barca in 238 BC. Death of Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia. 239 BC Demetrius II of Macedonia succeeds Antigonus II. 239 BC War and rebellion weaken Demetrius II of Macedonia’s hold on mainland Greece. 239-229 BC Seizure and annexation of Sardinia (238 BC) and Corsica (237 BC) from Carthage by Rome (Roman Republic). 238-237 BC Hamilcar Barca, Carthaginian general, and father of Hannibal. Begins the conquest of Spain (237-230 BC). 237 BC Carthage begins to conquer Spain to compensate for the loss of Sicily, Sardinia, and the Lipari Islands. Outbreak of war between Sparta and the Achaean League. 236 BC Death of Asoka. c. 236 BC His kingdom is divided between his grandsons. Beginning of the decline of the Maurya Empire in India. Eratosthenes of Cyrene (ca.280-194 BC). ca.235 BC Calculates the polar diameter of the Earth to be only 50 miles short of the modern value. First measurement of the Earth’s circumference (accomplished without the use of astronomical instruments). Makes contributions to Geography. Studies Historical Chronology. Heliocentric theory of the Solar System. Death of Han Fei Tzu. Chinese philosopher. 233 BC Hasdrubal is in Spain. 230-221 BC Egyptian temple of the sun god Horus is built at Edfu. c. 230 BC First Illyrian War (aka First Illyro-Roman War). 230-228 BC War between Roman fleet and Illyrian pirates. The Romans will defeat the Illyrian pirates. Nicomedes. Treatise “On Conchoid Lines”. c. 230 BC Contains the discovery of the curve that is now known as the “Conchoid of Nicomedes”. Attalus I of Pergamum. Makes Pergamum master of western Asia Minor. c. 230 BC Ch’in state conquers its rivals. 230-221 BC Carthage rules southern Spain. 229 BC Antigonus III of Macedonia succeeds Demetrius II. 229 BC Organization of the first Roman Provinces. 227 BC Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Foundation of Carthago Nova (New Carthage) in eastern Spain by Hasdrubal of Carthage. 227 BC War between Cleomenes, King of Sparta, and the Aetolian League. 227 BC Ebro River Treaty between Rome and Hasdrubal. 226 BC Rome and Carthage agree that the Ebro River (in Spain) would divide the Roman sphere of influence in the north, from the Carthaginian sphere of influence in the south, but that Rome would continue its alliance with Saguntum which lay south of the Ebro River. Hasdrubal, Hamilcar’s son-in-law, promises not to cross the Ebro River for offensive purposes. Athens, freed from Macedonia, allies with the Roman Republic. 226 BC The Cisalpine Gauls (Celts) rise up and march southward. ca. 225 BC Battle of Telamon (in Etruria). 225 BC The Gauls are defeated by the Romans. 40,000 Gauls are killed. The Romans (Roman Republic) crush Celtic invaders and build defensive forts in Northern Italy. 225-222 BC Roman armies are in Illyria. 225 BC Seleucus III Ceraunus. Ruler of the Seleucid Empire. 225-223 BC Apollonius of Perga (fl.250-220 BC). “Conics”. c. 225 BC Introduces the terms “parabola”, “ellipse”, and “hyperbola”. Romans stop incursions of the Boii, a Gallic tribe. 225-222 BC Earthquake at Rhodes. Destruction of the Colossus of Rhodes. 224 BC Antiochus III, the Great, the 6th ruler of the Seleucid Empire. 223-187 BC Rules the Babylonian Empire (from Syria and Phoenicia to Egypt). Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire begins the reconquest of territories that had been taken by Pergamum. c. 223 BC Roman conquest of northern Italy including Mediolanum (modern Milan), the capital of the Insubres, a Celtic tribe. 222 BC Battle of Clastidium. 222 BC (Part of the Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul). Victory of the Romans over the Celts at the Battle of Clastidium. The Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus kills Britomartus, the chief of the Gauls, in single combat. Battle of Sellasia. 221 BC Defeat of Sparta by a Macedonian phalanx of 10,000 men. Cleomenes III, King of Sparta, flees to Egypt. 221 BC Conquest of Sparta is made by Antigonus III Doson, of Macedonia. 221 BC Philip V becomes King of Macedonia. 221 BC Rules 221-179 BC Succession of Ptolemy III Euergetes, ruler of Egypt, by his son Ptolemy IV Philopater. 221 BC Ptolemy III Philopater rules Egypt 221-205 BC. Murder of Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca. Hamilcar’s eldest son, Hannibal, becomes commander of the Carthaginian armies. 221 BC Ch’in Dynasty in China. 221-206 BC China is unified for the first time in its history. China gets its name from this dynasty. Shih Huang-ti becomes China’s “First Emperor”. Rules 221-206 BC. Construction of the Flaminian Way from Rome to Rimini. c. 220 BC Second Illyro-Roman War. 220-219 BC (aka the Second Illyrian War). War of the Allies (also known as the “Social War”). 220-217 BC Macedonia fights against the Aetolian League, Sparta, and Elis. Rome interferes with Carthaginian affairs south of the Ebro River. 219 BC Saguntum which lay south of the Ebro River boundary in Carthaginian territory makes a defense treaty with the Roman Republic. Saguntum appeals to Rome for help against Carthage. Siege of Saguntum. 219-218 BC Siege and capture of Saguntum by the Carthaginians under the command of Hannibal Barca, because Rome had sent no help. Encouraged by his success in Saguntum, Hannibal Barca sees the opportunity to rid Spain entirely of the Romans. Hannibal Barca crosses the Ebro River and enters into Roman territory. Fourth Syrian War. 219-217 BC Ptolemy IV of Egypt vs. Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire (Syria). Rome demands the return of Saguntum and the extradition of Hannibal. Carthage refuses the Roman demands. 218 BC Roman declaration of war with Carthage. Outbreak of the Second Punic War (218-201 BC). 218 BC At the outbreak of the Second Punic War, the Romans thinking that the war was going to be waged in Spain, send Publius Cornelius Scipio and his Roman armies by sea to Massilia (modern Marseilles) to proceed on to Spain and intercept Hannibal. 218 BC On his way to Spain, to intercept Hannibal, Publius Cornelius Scipio is diverted by an insurrection of Gauls. 218 BC Hannibal leaves Spain and crosses the Alps to invade Italy. 218 BC Hannibal, the Carthaginian, begins his campaign against Rome during the Second Punic War. Hannibal launches a surprise attack from Spain into Italy via Mount Genevre in the Alps crossing first the Pyreenees and then the Alps. Hannibal frustrates the Roman war plan to attack Spain and from Sicily, Africa. Hannibal has about 50,000 men, 9000 cavalry, and 37 war elephants. Costly battles plus the rigors of the crossing cause the loss of half of the troops, down to 26,000 men. Hannibal had left his brother Hasdrubal to protect Spain with an army. Consul Publius Cornelius Scipio arrives in Spain three days late. 218 BC Instead of pursuing Hannibal, Scipio sends his armies under the command of his younger brother Cornelius Scipio Calvus (later called Africanus) into Spain in order to cut Hannibal's supply line and reinforcements. Second Punic War (218-201 BC) is fought in Spain. 218-211 BC Battle of Ticinus. Autumn 218 BC Returning from the Rhône to Italy, Publius Cornelius Scipio is defeated by the forces of Hannibal at the Ticinus River. P.C. Scipio is severely wounded. P.C. Scipio returns to Italy. 218 BC Together with an army headed by the Consul Tiberius Sempronius Longus, coming from Sicily, Scipio goes to meet Hannibal. Battle of the Trebbia River. Dec. 218 BC Roman armies under Publius Cornelius Scipio and Tiberius Sempronius Longus attack and are defeated by Hannibal at the river Trebbia. The sack of Thermum. 218 BC Philip V of Macedon sacks Thermum during the Social War. Battle of Lake Trasimene. 217 BC Hannibal ambushes, surrounds, and destroys a large Roman army under Consul Gaius Flaminius at Lake Trasimene. Hannibal continues moving southward. Roman naval victory off the Ebro River. 217 BC The dismayed population of Rome appoints Quintus Fabius Maximus as dictator in order to cope with Hannibal. 217 BC Fabius Maximus, having seen the uselessness of fighting Hannibal in open warfare, avoids set battles and instead resorts to a cautious, delaying conduct of the war (“Fabian tactics”). Battle of Raphia. 217 BC Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire is defeated by Ptolemy IV Philopater ruler of Egypt. Arsaces II. King of Parthia. 217-191 BC Battle of Cannae. August 3, 216 BC (Part of the Second Punic War). This is one of the worst Roman defeats in the history of Rome. When the Roman policy of “Fabian warfare” is abandoned, the outflanking of the Roman army by the Carthaginian cavalry leads to the loss of over 50,000 Romans and 4,500 prisoners, out of an army of 86,000 men. Among the dead is the Consul Lucius Aemillius Paullus. Capua, the Samnites, Lucanians, and Bruttians secede from Rome. 216 BC Hannibal takes up winter quarters in Campania in southern Italy. Hannibal is forced to abandon his aggressive conduct of the war because of insufficient support from Carthage. 216 BC Philip V, King of Macedonia makes an alliance with Hannibal of Carthage against the Roman Republic. 216 BC Roman armies in Spain are under Publius Cornelius Scipio and Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio (his brother). 215 BC Syracuse in Sicily joins Carthage against the Roman Republic. 215 BC First Macedonian War. 215-205 BC Rome against Macedonia. Rome’s Greek allies prevent Philip V of Macedonia from helping Hannibal. Philip V attacks Rome in support of Carthage against Rome. Battle of Nola. 215 BC (Part of the Second Punic War). Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus defeats Hannibal at Nola. Hannibal receives his first defeat by the Romans. Punic War in Sicily (214-210 BC). Begins. 214 BC Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus begins the conquest of Sicily from the Carthaginians. 214 BC The Roman conquest of Sicily will be completed in 210 BC. Seizure of Tarentum (modern Taranto) by Hannibal in 212 BC. Secession of the Greek cities along the south Italian coast, and Hannibal’s victory at Capua. 213-212 BC The Fall of Syracuse. 212 BC The sack and conquest of Syracuse, Sicily by the Roman army under the Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus. Archimedes (287-212 BC) is killed during the Roman siege of Syracuse. Construction of the Great Wall of China (1,400 miles long) begins during the Ch’in Dynasty. 212 BC Built to keep out invaders (Xiongnu or Huns). This is the first actual historically proven date pertaining to Chinese history. “Hannibal ante portas!” The Carthaginians are before the city of Rome. Hannibal reaches the gates of Rome but retreats. 211 BC Recapture of Capua by the Romans. 211 BC The siege and re-capture of Capua by the Romans is made possible by the failure of Hannibal’s diversionary attack on the city of Rome. Quintus Fulvius Flaccus forces the city of Capua to surrender. Battle of Ilorca. 211 BC Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio is defeated by the Carthaginians. He dies in battle. Battle of the Upper Baetis. 211 BC The defeat of the Romans and the deaths of Publius Cornelius Scipio and Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio, his brother, in Spain, were brought about by Hasdrubal and the Numidian prince Masinissa. The Romans send the 24 year old Publius Cornelius Scipio (later will be called Africanus) to Spain. 211 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio was his father. Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio was his uncle. Alliance of Rome, the Aetolians, Spartans, Eleons, and Illyria. 211 BC Sicily is abandoned by the Carthaginians. 210 BC Antiochus III, ruler of the Seleucid Empire, is at the peak of his power. 209 BC Battle of Carthago Nova. 209 BC Conquest of Carthago Nova (New Carthage) in Spain, by Publius Cornelius Scipio the Younger, the son of Publius Cornelius Scipio. Completion of the conquest of Spain from the Carthaginians by Publius Cornelius Scipio the Younger (Africanus). 209-206 BC Battle of Baecula. 208 BC A costly battle for Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal. Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, leaves the Iberian peninsula (Spain) in order to help his brother whose resources are declining. 208 BC Battle of the Metaurus River (Sena Gallica). 207 BC (Part of the Second Punic War). Hasdrubal struggles through into Italy with reinforcements, but before he can join forces with his brother Hannibal, he is defeated at the Battle of Metaurus by the Roman troops under the veteran Marcus Livius Salinator and Gaius Claudius Nero. Hasdrubal is killed in battle. The Roman victory over the Carthaginians at the Metaurus River ranks as one of the decisive battles in history. Hannibal retires to southern Italy. 207 BC Battle of Mantinea. 207 BC Philopoemen, the general of the Achaean League, defeats the Spartans. Battle of Ilipa. 206 BC The brilliant Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio the Younger (later called Africanus) is victorious over the Carthaginians under Mago, brother of Hannibal, and Masinissa at Ilipa (Spain). Romans advance to Southern Spain. Seizure of Gades. 206 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio the Younger defeats the Carthaginians in Spain. Completion of the expulsion of the Carthaginians from Spain by the younger Scipio (later will be called Scipio Africanus). 206 BC Departure of the Carthaginian fleet under Mago for the Balearic Islands, and from there to Genoa to win over the Ligurians and the Gauls once more for the fight against Rome. End of Carthaginian rule in Spain. 206 BC Founding of the Han Dynasty in China. 206 BC Will last from 206 BC until 221 AD. Ptolemy V, Epiphanes, becomes King of Egypt. 205 BC Ptolemy V rules 205-181 BC. Egypt is assisted by the Roman Republic. Inscription engraved on the “Rosetta Stone”. c.205 BC Records the accession of Ptolemy V, Epiphanes to the throne of Egypt. Scipio the Younger returns to Rome and is elected Consul. 205 BC Peace of Phoenice. 205 BC End of the First Macedonian War (215-205 BC). Scipio the Younger carries the war against Carthage into north Africa. Scipio the Younger crosses into Africa. 204 BC He remains there until the end of the Second Punic War in 202 BC. Masinessa, the Numidian, defects from Carthage. 204 BC Judaea submits to Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire. 203 BC Battle of Utica. 203 BC Scipio the Younger (Africanus) defeats Carthaginian forces at Utica, less than 20 miles west of Carthage. Fruitless peace negotiations lead to Hannibal’s recall from Italy back to Carthage. 203 BC Death of Mago, brother of Hannibal in upper Italy. 203 BC Hannibal is blockaded in Calabria with no forces for further operations of any magnitude. 203 BC Hannibal manages to leave Calabria (Croton) located on the Gulf of Taranto and returns to Carthage, in north Africa. 202 BC Battle of Zama. 202 BC Hannibal is defeated by Publius Scipio Africanus the Younger at the Battle of Zama. The Carthaginian army is destroyed by the Romans. Hannibal flees to Hadrumentum and advises peace. 202 BC End of fighting in the Second Punic War (218-201 BC) with the defeat of Carthage at the Battle of Zama by Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus). Over 200,000 total war dead. Peace treaty between Rome and Carthage. 202 BC Abandonment of Spain by Carthage. Surrender of Numidia to Masinessa. Payment of Reparations. Surrender of warships, except for 10 triremes. Prohibition of warfare outside Africa. Warfare in Africa only with Roman permission. Publius Cornelius Scipio the Younger receives the honorary title of “Africanus”. Scipio receives a triumphal celebration. 202 BC Fifth Syrian War. 202-195 BC End of the Second Punic War. 201 BC Carthage surrenders all of its Mediterranean lands to Rome. The territory of Syracuse in Sicily is incorporated into the Roman Province of Sicilia. Second Macedonian War. 200-197 BC Greek states turn to Rome for help against Philip V, King of Macedonia. Rome joins the Greek states in war against Macedonia. The ravaging of Attica. 200 BC Roman War with the Gauls in Upper Italy. 200-190 BC Rome suppresses the uprising of the Boii and the Insubres, barbarian tribes that were supported by scattered Carthaginians. Porta Augusta, Perugia. ca.200 BC Fine example of Etruscan arched gateway. Winged Victory of Samothrace (Nike of Samothrace). ca.200-190 BC Greek sculpture. Battle of Panion (in Palestine). 200 BC Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire takes Palestine from Egypt. Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire, in a great battle in Palestine, expels Egyptian troops under Scopas from Jerusalem. Antiochus III defeats the Egyptian army at Mount Panium (Panion). Final establishment of the Seleucid (Syrian) power in Palestine. Cato the Elder. “De Agricultura.” c.200 BC Diocles. “On Burning Mirrors.” c.200 BC Includes a collection of sixteen propositions in geometry mostly proving results dealing with conics. “Greek Kings” continue on in India. 199-138 BC The Achaeans and the Spartans join the Romans in the war against Macedonia. 198 BC The Romans divide Spain into two Roman provinces. 197 BC Hispania Citerior (east coast) and Hispania Ulterior (southern coast). Battle of Cynoscephalae. 197 BC Under the leadership of Titus Quinctius Flaminius of Rome, Roman armies break through into Thessaly and defeat the armies of Philip V, King of Macedon, at Cynoscephalae. Marks the end of the Second Macedonian War (200-197 BC). 10,000 total war dead. Peace treaty: Philip V of Macedonia surrenders hegemony in Greece, payment of War Indemnity, and surrender of the Macedonian fleet except for six ships. Philip V is forced to surrender Greece to the Romans. Titus Quinctius Flaminus (Rome) declares Greek city states (Macedonian Greece) independent of Macedonia. 196 BC Hannibal of Carthage joins Antiochus III, of the Seleucid Empire. Hannibal urges Antiochus to carry on war against the Romans. 196 BC Founding of the great Library at Pergamum. 196 BC End of the Fifth Syrian War (202-195 BC). 195 BC Won by Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire. Ptolemy V Epiphanes, ruler of Egypt from 205 BC, loses all lands in Asia Minor but keeps Cyprus. Peace between the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Egypt. 195 BC Hannibal of Carthage flees to Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire because of a Roman demand for his extradition. 195 BC Cato is in Spain. 195 BC Romans leave Greece. 194 BC Masinessa, King of Numidia, harasses the Carthaginians and interferes with their commerce. 193 BC Roman-Seleucid War. 192-189 BC Fought between Rome and Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire (Syria). Antiochus III of Syria invades Greece and with the Aetolians fights Rome. Rome is backed by Macedonia and the Achaeans. The Romans will acquire territory in Asia Minor, during the Seleucid War between Rome and the Seleucid Empire, under Antiochus III of Syria. War between Rome and Sparta. 192 BC End of the Spartan Empire (Sparta was founded c.900 BC). Beginnings of revolts in Spain against Roman rule. 191-189 BC Battle of Thermopylae. 191 BC The Romans under Manius Acilius Glabrio and Marcus Porcius Cato crush Antiochus III, Seleucid King (Syria), at Thermopylae and drive him from mainland Greece. Arsaces III Phriapatius. King of Parthia. 191-176 BC Battle of Magnesia. 190 BC A Roman force of 40,000 legionaries under Lucius Cornelius Scipio (later called Scipio Asiaticus) and his brother Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, totally defeat an 80,000 man army under the Seleucid King Antiochus III at Magnesia, on the Sipylus in Asia Minor. Antiochus III is compelled to cede all of Asia Minor except for Cilicia. Beginning of Roman world domination. Greek rulers in Bactria take the opportunity to break away from control of the Seleucid Empire. c.190 BC Romans attack and subjugate the Celts. 190 BC Armenia revolts against the rule of the Seleucid Empire and establishes its independence. 189 BC The Aetolian League is crushed by the Romans (Roman Republic). 189 BC Peace of Apamea. 189 BC End of the Roman-Seleucid War (192-189 BC). Rome makes Antiochus III pay war indemnity to the Romans, give Asia Minor to Rhodes and Pergamum, and surrender all of their warships except for ten of them. Rome helps Pergamum against the Galatians. 189 BC After the Peace of Apamea (189 BC), Hannibal of Carthage flees to King Prusias of Bithynia. The Romans demand the extradition of Hannibal of Carthage. 188 BC Philopoemen abrogates the laws of Lycurgus in Sparta. 188 BC Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire is killed. 187 BC He is succeeded by his son Seleucus IV Philopater. Seleucid power in Syria begins to revive under Seleucus IV Philopater. 187 BC Rules 187-175 BC. Conquest of the Punjab in India by Demetrius of Bactria. c. 185 BC Cato, the leader of the anti-Scipionic party in Rome engages in fighting corruption within the nobility. 184 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, the great opponent of Hannibal of Carthage, is accused of high treason. Lucius Cornelius Scipio (Asiaticus) who defeated Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire is accused of embezzlement. Scipio Africanus the Elder (236-183 BC) goes into voluntary exile. 184 BC Overthrow of the Mauryan Dynasty in India. 184 BC Scipio Africanus the Elder (236-183 BC) dies in self-imposed exile. 183 BC Pisa and Parma in northern Italy come under Roman rule. 183 BC Suicide of Hannibal. 183 BC After his career in Asia Minor, Hannibal commits suicide while he is in exile in Bithynia, upon betrayal to the Romans, in order to avoid extradition by Rome. Philopoeman is taken prisoner and put to death by the Messenians. 183 BC Decline of the Achaean League. Succession of Ptolemy V in Egypt by Ptolemy VI Philometor. 181 BC Ptolemy VI rules Egypt 181-145 BC. Founding of the Roman colony of Aquileia as a trade metropolis for northern Europe.181 BC The Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamum (in modern day Berlin). 180 BC Built for Eumenes II of Pergamum. One of the great altars of the BC period. Taoism and Confucianism become established in China. 180 BC Pons Aemilius. 179 BC The first stone bridge is built in Rome. Death of Philip V, King of Macedonia. 179 BC Perseus, son of Philip V, succeeds to the rule of Macedonia. Perseus rules 179-167 BC. Perseus is hostile to Rome. Continues war with Rome until 167 BC. Istria is subdued by the Romans. 177 BC Phraates. King of Parthia. 176-171 BC Conquers the Mardians on the Caspian Sea. Deposition of the Jewish high priest Onias (Palestine). 175 BC Earliest known paved streets appear in Rome. c.175 BC Murder of Seleucus IV of the Seleucid Empire by poison. 175 BC Antiochus IV Epiphanes rules the Seleucid Empire. 175-164 BC He is universally hated and despised. Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucid Empire executes Onias III, the Jewish high priest in Judea. 172 BC The Romans effect the dissolution of the Boeotian confederacy. 172 BC Mithridates I, comes to the throne of the Kingdom of Parthia. 171 BC Rules 171-132 BC. Eumenes II of Pergamum (hailed as champion of Greek Independence) persuades Rome to take action against Macedonia. 171 BC Third Macedonian War. 171-168 BC Macedonians under Perseus again attack Rome. Rome against Macedonia. Perseus, son of Philip V, of Macedonia. Attempts to restore hegemony over Greece. Roman army is defeated by Perseus of Macedonia at Larissa. 171 BC Outbreak of war between Egypt (Ptolemy VI) and Syria (Antiochus IV). Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucid Empire (Syria) invades Egypt and gains a victory at Pelusium. 171 BC Subjugation of Egypt as far as Alexandria by Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucid Empire. 170 BC Tyranny of Antiochus IV Epiphanes in Palestine. 170 BC Small Greek principalities are established in the Punjab in India. 170 BC Sixth Syrian War. 170-168 BC Temple of Zeus, Olympius, Athens, is resumed by the Roman architect Cassutius. This is the first major temple in the Corinthian style of architecture. ca. 170 BC Battle of Pydna. June 22, 168 BC Roman forces under Lucius Aemilius Paulus crush Macedonian army under Perseus, the ruler of Macedonia, at Pydna. 20,000 Macedonians killed and 11,000 taken prisoner. End of the Third Macedonian War. Romans defeat, dethrone, and imprison the Macedonian ruler, Perseus. The Romans subordinate Macedonia and Illyria. 168 BC Romans ravage Epirus. Macedonia is divided into four republics. Macedonians are sold as slaves in Rome. Ptolemy VII (Eugertes) becomes joint ruler of Egypt with his brother Ptolemy VI. 168 BC Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucid Empire captures and pillages the city of Jerusalem. 168 BC Severe persecution of the Jews by Antiochus IV, King of Syria. Desecration of the Temple of Jerusalem by Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the Seleucid King of Syria. 168 BC Antiochus IV Epiphanes builds a statue of Jupiter Olympius (Zeus) in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem. 168 BC The Revolt of the Hasmoneans (Hebrew Maccabees). 168-165 BC Maccabaean revolt. Successful revolt of the Jews led by Maccabees. Led by the Jewish priest Mattathias and his sons, Judas, Jonathan, and Simon Maccabeus, against the Seleucid rule under Antiochus IV, king of Syria, who had tried to Hellenize Jewish Palestine. Rome stops Antiochus IV of Syria, capturing Alexandria, Egypt. 168 BC Third Illyro-Roman War (aka Third Illyrian War). 168 BC Lucius Anicius Gallus defeats Gentius, the Illyrian king. Destruction of the Ardiaei Kingdom. Death of Perseus, the ruler of Macedonia. 167 BC End of the Antigonid Dynasty in Macedonia (276-167 BC). Judas Maccabaeus. Rededicates the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem after expelling the Syrians (Seleucids) from Jerusalem. 165 BC Antiochus IV of the Seleucid Empire, dies on his way to Babylon. 164 BC Loss of Babylonia, Persia, and all countries between the Euphrates and the Indus. Ptolemy VI flees Egypt. Division of the kingdom of Egypt between Ptolemy VI and the future Ptolemy VIII (Physcon). 164-63 BC Antiochus V Eupater (rules 163-161 BC) and Demetrius I Soter (rules 163-150 BC) rule the Seleucid Empire. 163 BC Seizure of Media by Mithridates I of Parthia. 161 BC Demetrius I Soter is sole ruler of the Seleucid Empire. 161-150 BC The city of Rome has many public libraries. 161 BC Death of Judas Maccabeus while fighting against the Seleucids. c. 160 BC Jonathan Maccabeus, the younger brother of Judas Maccabeus, is leader of the Jews in Judaea (until 143 BC). The Xiongnu (Huns) fight against the Han Dynasty in China. 160-140 BC Judaea briefly becomes an independent principality. 157 BC Embassy of Diogenes of Babylon the Stoic (c.230-c.150 BC), Carneades (Platonist), and Critolaus (Aristotelian) to Rome. 155 BC Ptolemy VIII of Egypt bequeaths his share of the kingdom to Rome. 155 BC Celtiberian War (Spanish War). 154-151 BC Revolt in Spain against Roman rule. Masinessa of Numidia defeats the Carthaginians. 152 BC Constant conflict with Masinessa of Numidia, who is encouraged by Rome, drives Carthage into a war that is not approved by Rome (according to the Treaty of 202 BC). 150 BC Rome declares war on Carthage. 150 BC Dissensions between the Spartans and the Achaeans. 150 BC Demetrius I Soter, ruler of the Seleucial Empire, is killed in battle. 150 BC Alexander Balas. Ruler of the Seleucid Empire. 150-146 BC Hero of Alexandria. "Pneumatics" (“Pneumatica”). Provides a study of atmospheric air, syphons, pumps, the effects of heat on liquids, and engine design. ca. 150 BC Panaetius of Rhodes (c.185-109 BC). Stoic philosopher. Introduces Stoicism from Greece to Rome. c. 150 BC Third Punic War. 149-146 BC The Romans invade north Africa. 149 BC After the landing of two Roman armies, the Carthaginians at first capitulate, but then they refuse to leave the city. They renew the struggle. Fourth Macedonian War. 149-148 BC Rome (the Roman Republic) defeats Macedonia in the Macedonian War. 148 BC Macedonia is reduced to a Roman province (147). 147 BC Macedonia is the first Roman Province in the East. Rome cuts Carthage off from all supplies by land or sea. 146 BC Famine in Carthage. Achaean League attacks Sparta. 146 BC Rome sends Roman troops under Lucius Mummius into Greece. 146 BC Conquest of Corinth. 146 BC Corinth is taken over by Roman troops under the commander Lucius Mummius (Achaicus). The Romans take an enormous haul of Greek art back to Italy. Roman Conquest of Greece. 146 BC 11,000 total war dead. Greece is now under Roman rule. Greece becomes the Roman province of Achaea. End of the Achaean League. Greece will belong to Rome from 146 BC until the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD when it will pass to the newly formed Byzantine Empire (Constantinople). Seizure and destruction of Carthage. 146 BC Rome sends Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus (185-129 BC) who accomplishes the seizure and destruction of Carthage despite a plea by P. Cornelius Scipio. Carthage capitulates. Out of an estimated population of 700,000, 450,000 are killed, and 50,000 Carthaginians are left alive. Survivors are sold into slavery. Carthage is burnt, the ground is salted, the ruins are ploughed to express final total destruction, and a curse is invoked upon anyone who might attempt to rebuild it. Carthage ceases to exist. Carthage will later be rebuilt by Julius Caesar. End of the Third Punic War (149-146 BC). 146 BC Carthage is made a Roman province. It is called “Africa”. The Roman Republic now has seven provinces: 146 BC Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, the two Spains, Gallia Transalpina, Africa, and Macedonia. Hipparchus of Nicea. fl. 146-126 BC Greek philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician. Measures the size and distance of the Moon from the Earth. Measures the size and the distance of the Sun from the Earth. Develops the beginnings of Trigonometry. Demetrius II Nicator rules Seleucia (Seleucid Empire). 146 BC First reign (146-139 BC). Second reign 129-126 BC. Death of Ptolemy VI Philometor of Egypt. 145 BC Ptolemy VIII Euergetes becomes the sole ruler of Egypt. He is a cruel and odious tyrant. Ptolemy VIII Euergetes rules 145-116 BC. Lusitanian War. War with Viriathus, the leader of the Lusitani (Lusitania in Iberia), who maintains a prolonged war with Rome. 143-133 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus (185-129 BC) is sent against Viriathus the leader of the Lusitani (part of Lusitanian War). 143 BC Jonathan Maccabaeus (the successor of Judas) is killed by the Seleucids. Jonathan is succeeded by Simon Maccabaeus (to 134 BC), the elder brother of Judas Maccabaeus and Jonathan Maccabaeus as leader of the Jews. 143 BC Simon Maccabeus negotiates independence for Judaea (southern Palestine). 143 BC Independence lasts from 143-63 BC. Jews win independence in Judaea under Simon Maccabeus (Maccabees). Embassy of Scipio Africanus to Alexandria. 143 BC Numantine War. 143-133 BC Rome vs. Numantia. Mithridates I of Parthia captures Babylon. c. 141 BC Development of various religious groups in Israel including the Pharisees, the Saduccees, and the Essenes. c. 140-137 BC Viriathus, leader of the Lusitani, is treacherously murdered. Lusitania will become a Roman province (133 BC). 140 BC Epirus is taken by the Romans (the Roman Republic). 140 BC The Venus de Milo. Greek sculpture. c. 140 BC Demetrius II Nicator, ruler of the Seleucid Empire. Defeats Mithridates I of Parthia. 140 BC Mithridates I of Parthia. Captures Demetrius II Nicator of Seleucia. 139 BC Scythian invasion of Bactria. c. 139 BC Phraates II. Ruler of Parthea. 138-127 BC Antiochus VII Sidetes is ruler of the Seleucid Empire. 138-129 BC First Slave War (also called the First Servile War). 136-132 BC The Syrian Eunus brings the slaves of Sicily together. 200,000 Sicilian slaves revolt against the Roman Republic. Eunus is taken prisoner after the capture of Enna and Tauromenium. The revolt will be suppressed. Assassination of Simon Maccabeus. 135 BC He is succeeded by his son John Hyrcanus as leader of the Jews in Judaea (Palestine). Rules 135-104 BC. Antiochus VIII, ruler of the Seleucid Empire (Syria). Reconquers the city of Jerusalem. 134 BC In the East, Attalos III of Pergamon in Asia Minor bequeaths the Kingdom of Pergamum to Rome (the Roman Republic). 133 BC Attalos III is the last ruler of the kingdom of Pergamum. Asia Minor will become the eighth Roman Province in 129 BC. Seizure of Numantia by the Romans under Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus. He receives the additional title of Numantinus. 133 BC End of the Numantine War (143-133 BC). Lusitania becomes a Roman province. 133 BC Rome subdues all of Spain, except for the northwest. 133 BC Conflict between the Han Dynasty in China and the Xiongnu (Huns) is renewed. 133-119 BC Reform movement of the Gracchi. 133-121 BC Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and 300 people are killed in a massacre of revolutionaries for social reforms. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus is beaten to death with a fragment of a broken bench by two senators (133 BC). Rome crushes the Sicilian slave revolt. 132 BC End of the First Servile War (136-132 BC). John Hyrcanus I aided by the Parthians, asserts the independence of the Jews in Palestine. 130 BC Temple of Artemis Leucophryene, Magnesia on the Meander. c. 130 BC Masterwork of the architect Hermogenes. The Old Testament Book of Esther is written. c. 130 BC Rome (the Roman Republic) controls nearly all of the Mediterranean territories that are civilized. c. 129 BC Beginning of war between the Seleucid Empire and Parthia. 129 BC Antiochus VII of the Seleucid Empire invades the Parthian Empire. 129 BC Battle of Ecbatana. 129 BC Antiochus VII Sidetes of the Seleucid Empire is defeated and killed in battle fighting against the Parthians under Phraates II. Demetrius II Nicator recovers the throne of the Seleucid Empire. Flaccus reduces the Transalpine Ligurians. 128 BC Hipparchus of Nicea. Discovers the precession of the equinoxes and calculates the length of the year to within 6.5 minutes of the correct value. 127 BC Hipparchus of Nicea. Produces a star catalog of 1080 stars. 125 BC Mithridates II of Parthia. Rules 124-88 BC. Restores peace in the East after a long succession of terrible wars. 124-87 BC He will meet with a powerful rival in Tigranes I, King of Armenia. Tigranes I. King of Armenia. 123-95 BC Election of Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, brother of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, to the position of Tribune. G.S. Gracchus plans wide social reforms. 123 BC Aix becomes the first Roman colony in Gaul. 122 BC Gaius Gracchus expands the program of his brother Tiberius Gracchus. Gaius Gracchus and 3,000 of his followers are killed during a riot in the streets of Rome. 121 BC Roman armies in Gaul subdue two major Gallic tribes, the Allobroges and the Arvernii. 121 BC Gallia Narbonensis (Southern Gaul) becomes a Roman province. 121 BC Balearae Insulae falls under Roman control. 121 BC Antiochus VIII Grypus. Ruler of the Seleucid Empire. 121-96 BC Development of overland silk trade between Rome and China. c.120 BC The Chinese drive the nomadic Hsiung-nu (Huns) into the Gobi Desert. 119 BC Reign of Ptolemy VIII (Soter II) in Egypt. 117-81 BC He is the successor to Ptolemy VII. The Cimbri, an ancient Germanic tribe, leave Jutland which has been devastated by storms, and reach the Roman province of Noricum (Carinthia). 115 BC Cimbrian War. 113-101 BC Roman War against the Cimbri and the Teutons, coming from Jutland with the Ambrones. Battle of Noreia (in Carinthia). 113 BC Roman armies are defeated by the combined forces of the Cimbri, Teutons, and Ambrones. The Pharisees and Sadducees become prominent in Judaea. c. 112 BC Their rivalry weakens the kingdom that was built up by the Hasmonean ruler John Hyrcanus (ruled 135-104 BC). Jugurtha usurps the throne of Numidia. 112 BC The Jugurthine (Numidian or African) War (112-105 BC). War begins between Rome and the usurper Jugurtha, the king of Numidia, in northern Africa. 112 BC A Roman army under the Consul Lucius Calpurnius Bestia is sent to Numidia to defeat Jugurtha. Jugurtha makes peace. 111 BC John Hyrcanus. Joins the Sadducees. 110 BC The Cimbri, a Celtic tribe, ravage Gaul. 108 BC Battle of Muthul River. 108 BC (Roman Conquest of Numidia). Quintus Metellus (Numidicus) takes over the Roman expeditionary force in Numidia. Quintus Metellus routes the Numidians. Jugurtha escapes. Roman general Gaius Marius is elected Consul for the first time. 107 BC He is sent to Africa to defeat Jugurtha. 106 BC Alexander Jannaeus (Hasmonean) in Palestine. 106 BC Gaius Marius, assisted by fellow Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla, defeats and captures Jugurtha of Numidia. 105 BC The usurper Jugurtha surrenders to Sulla. Jugurtha, the Numidian king, is betrayed by his father-in-law Bocchus. Jugurtha is brought to Rome a prisoner and subsequently strangled. End of the Jugurthine War (112-105 BC). 105 BC Part of Numidia becomes a Roman Province. The rest of the kingdom is divided among other north African states. Westward expansion of the Cimbri, a Celtic tribe. 105 BC The Cimbri ravage Roman Gaul. The Cimbri and the Teutones become allies and decide to invade the Roman Republic (Italy). 105 BC Battle of Arausio. 105 BC The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutones win a decisive victory over the Roman army at Arausio on the Rhone River. 20,000 Roman soldiers are killed. The Cimbri and the Teutones advance into northwestern Italy. 105 BC Panic in Rome (the second “Celtic Storm") caused by approaching Germanic barbarian tribes. 105 BC Death of John Hyrcanus (Hasmonean). 104 BC Alexander Jannaeus. King of Judaea. 103-76 BC Outbreak of the Second Slave War (103-99 BC). 103 BC Also known as the Second Servile War. Battle of Aquae Sextiae. 102 BC Germanic tribes Cimbri and Teutones are defeated by Roman armies under Gaius Marius at Aquae Sextiae. Gaius Marius drives back the Germanic barbarian tribes. Cilicia comes under Roman Rule (Roman Republic). 101 BC Battle of Vercellae. 101 BC Germanic barbarian tribes of the Cimbri and Teutones are defeated at Vercellae by Roman armies under Gaius Marius. Gaius Marius. Becomes Consul for the sixth time. 100 BC He murders his political opponents. Asclepiades. Makes differentiation between acute diseases and chronic diseases. c.100 BC Construction of the Great Stupa (Buddhist). Sanchi, India. c.100 BC Roman forces win the Second Servile War (103-99 BC) in Sicily. 99 BC Alexander Jannaeus (Hasmonean) besieges and takes Gaza. 98 BC Cyrenaica (Cyrene) is bequeathed to Rome (the Roman Republic) by Apion of Cyrene. 96 BC Murder of Antiochus VIII Grypus of the Seleucid Empire. 96 BC Antiochus IX, half-brother of Antiochus VIII, is killed in battle. 96 BC Civil and other wars weaken the Seleucid Empire. 95-64 BC Tigranes II. King of Armenia. 95-55 BC Mithridates II of Parthia makes a treaty with Rome. 92 BC Roman Social War or Marsian War. 90-89 BC Revolt of the Pharisees in Judea. 90 BC End of the Social War (90-89 BC). 89 BC This war cost the lives of almost 300,000 men. Rome is forced to open Roman citizenship to the Italian states. All Italians become citizens of Rome. Uprising against the Romans at Ephesus and in all the provinces of Asia. 80,000 Romans are killed in Asia Minor. 88 BC Uprisings against Roman rule at Athens. 88 BC First Mithridatic War. 88-84 BC Attack by Mithridates VI Eupater, King of Pontus, against Roman territory in the East. Appeals to the Greeks to rise up against Rome. Mithridates VI Eupater, King of Pontus. Overruns the Roman Province of Asia (Asia Minor). 88 BC Outbreak of the First Roman Civil War. 88 BC Marius vs. Sulla (88 until 82 BC). Sulla having been charged with the conduct of the war by the Senate, was deprived of his command by the people who gave it to Gaius Marius. Sulla conquers Rome and re-establishes the rule of the Senate. 88 BC Lucius Cornelius Sulla leaves to fight Mithridates. Gaius Marius is driven out by Sulla. Gaius Marius and his supporters return to Rome. 87 BC Marius seizes control of the government. Athens is besieged and taken by the Romans under Sulla. 86 BC End of the revolt of Athens against Roman rule. Battle of Chaeronea. 86 BC Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC) defeats the troops of Mithridates VI Eupater, of Pontus, at the Battle of Chaeronea. Battle of Orchomenus. 85 BC Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC) defeats the armies of Mithridates VI Eupater at Orchomenus. Peace of Dardanus. 84 BC End of First Mithridatic War between Rome and Mithridates VI, of Pontus. Second Mithridatic War. 83-81 BC Fought between Rome and Pontus. The Romans successfully invade Pontus. Quintus Sertorius (123-72 BC), the opponent of Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC), goes into Spain and is made general of the Lusitani. 83-72 BC Tigranes II, King of Armenia, is invited by the Syrians to assume the crown of Syria. Rules 83-69 BC. 83 BC Battle of the Colline Gate. 82 BC Sulla returns to Rome, destroys the Marians and all of their allies. Sulla makes himself dictator of Rome (until 79 BC). Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC) sends Pompey the Great to Sicily against the supporters of Gaius Marius. 82 BC Conquest of the provinces of Sicily and north Africa by Pompey the Great. He receives a triumph and the honorary title Magnus (“the Great”). 82 BC Sulla is made dictator in Rome for life (rules 82-79 BC). 82 BC Publication of proscription lists. 90 Senators and 2,600 equestrians are killed. Pompey the Great moves on to the Roman province of Africa against the supporters of Gaius Marius. 81 BC Reign of Ptolemy XII of Egypt. 80-51 BC Arsaces XV (Orodes I). Ruler of the Parthian Empire. 80-75 BC Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC). Voluntarily gives up his dictatorship and retires. 79 BC The death of Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC). 78 BC Revolt of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, an opponent of the reforms that were made by Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC). 78-77 BC Roman generals Quintus Lutatius Catullus and Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey) smash the revolt of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, the opponent of Sulla and his reforms. 78-77 BC Pompey the Great is sent to Spain in order to deal with Quintus Sertorius, the leader of the last supporters of Gaius Marius. 77 BC Pompey fights in Spain against the remaining Marians that are under Quintus Sertorius. Subjugation and reorganization of Spain. 77-71 BC Cyrene (Cyrenaica) in north Africa becomes a Roman Province. 74 BC Outbreak of the Third Mithridatic War (74-64 BC). 74 BC War is provoked by the seizure of Cappadocia and Syria by Mithridates VI Eupater of Pontus. Mithridates VI Eupater of Pontus renews the war against Rome. Battle of Cyzicus. 73 BC Roman general Lucius Licinius Lucullus, with a Roman army, defeats Mithridates VI Eupater of Pontus. General Lucullus takes Pontus for Rome. Mithridates VI Eupater of Pontus flees to the court of Tigranes II, King of Armenia, his son in law. Third Servile War aka Third Slave War (73-71 BC). 73 BC Spartacus, a gladiator from Thessaly, leads a revolt of 70,000 slaves in Southern Italy. Several Roman armies under the generals Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey the Great take two years to put down the slave revolt under Spartacus. 73-71 BC The Helvetii, a barbarian Germanic tribe, cross the Upper Rhine River under their leader Ariovistus and advance into Gaul. 72 BC Gnaeus Pompey crushes the revolt in Spain. 71 BC Battle of Lucania. 71 BC Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus crush the revolt of the slaves and gladiators under Spartacus. Pompey crucifies 6,000 slaves along the Appian Way. End of the Third Servile War (73-71 BC). Roman generals Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey) use their troops to make themselves consuls. 70 BC Consulate of Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus. 70 BC Sullan (Sulla) laws are abolished. Invasion of Armenia by Roman general Lucius Licinius Lucullus. 69 BC Battle of Tigrancerta. 69 BC Roman army under general Lucius Licinius Lucullus besieges Tigrancerta, the fortified capital of Armenia where Mithridates VI of Pontus has taken refuge with Tigranes, King of Armenia. 10,000 Roman besiegers defeat 100,000 Pontic and Armenian troops. Dynastic war in Palestine. 69 BC Hyrcanus II is deposed. Rise of the house of Antipater. Romans capture bases of Mediterranean pirates on Crete. 68-67 BC Lucius Licinius Lucullus is recalled by the Roman Senate from the war against Mithridates VI Eupater, of Pontus. 68 BC Pompey completes the elimination of the Mediterranean pirates. 67 BC Pompey ends the campaign against the pirates in the Mediterranean Sea. Creta (Crete) becomes a Roman Province. 67 BC Cyrenae is incorporated into the Province of “Creta et Cyrenae”. Pompey is given the command against Mithridates VI, of Pontus. 67 BC Pompey defeats Mithridates VI, of Pontus, at the Euphrates River. 67 BC Gnaeus Pompey. With a Roman army, invades Syria and conquers Palestine. 67 BC Subjugation of Pontus by Pompey the Great. 67 BC Hyrcanus II rules Judaea. 67 BC Totally defeated by Pompey the Great, Mithridates VI Eupater, of Pontus, will finally kill himself (63 BC). 65 BC Pompey the Great annexes Syria to the Roman Republic. 64 BC End of the Seleucid Empire (321-64 BC). 64 BC The Seleucid Empire was founded in 321 BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of the generals of Alexander the Great. Reorganization of the East under Gnaeus Pompey. Termination of the Seleucid Empire by Pompey the Great. Pontus, Syria, and Cilicia are reduced to Roman Provinces. Death of Aristobulus II, King of Judaea. Pompey the Great annexes Judaea to Rome. 64 BC End of the Third Mithridatic War (74-64 BC) that was fought between Mithridates VI King of Pontus and the Roman Republic. 64 BC “The Conspiracy of Catiline.” 64-62 BC Pompey the Great captures the city of Jerusalem. 63 BC Pompey incorporates Palestine into the Roman Republic. 63 BC Conquest of Jerusalem by Pompey. Imposition of tribute duties. Judaea is dependent upon the Romans. Reduces Hyrcanus II to religious but not political rule. Cicero, the great Roman orator, exposes Catiline’s plot to seize consulship by force. 63 BC Cataline along with 3,000 of his supporters are defeated and killed at Pistoria. 62 BC Pons Fabricius. 62 BC The Romans build a masonry bridge over the River Tiber. The founding of Florence, Italy. 62 BC Pompey the Great returns to Italy. 62 BC He disbands his army upon landing. Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC), nephew of Marius, and governor of Spain, wins his first victories in Spain. 61 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) leaves Spain and returns to Rome. 60 BC Formation of the First Triumvirate (60-53 BC). 60 BC Formed by Julius Caesar, Pompey the Great, and Marcus Licinius Crassus. Rule will last from 60 BC until 53 BC. Lucretius. “De Rerum Natura.” 60 BC Epicurean doctrine of man and the universe. Epicureanism. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) is elected Consul. 59 BC Birth of Titus Livius (Livy) (59 BC-17 AD). Roman historian. 59 BC Wrote a monumental history of Rome. 142 volumes. Gallic Wars. 58-51 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC), commander of the Roman armies in Gaul, begins the conquest of Gaul. He will command eight campaigns in Gaul. Battle of Bibracte. 58 BC (Part of the Gallic Wars). Julius Caesar crushes the Celtic Helvetii at the Battle of Bibracte (Autun). The Helvetic surrender to Julius Caesar. Battle of Vesontio (also known as the Battle of Mühlhausen). 58 BC (Part of the Gallic Wars). Julius Caesar’s six Roman legions defeat a Gallic force of seven tribes, commanded by the Germanic chief Ariovistus. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). Appointed proconsul (governor) of Gaul and Illyricum. 58 BC The island of Cyprus comes under Roman rule. 58 BC The Xiongnu (Huns) revert back to nomadism. 58-51 BC Battle of Sambre River. 57 BC (Part of the Gallic Wars). Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) conquers a coalition of Belgic tribes (Belgae), especially the Nervii. Battle of Morbihan Gulf. 56 BC (Part of the Gallic Wars). Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) moves into Brittany to put down a rebellion of the Venetii. Campaigns against the tribes of Brittany and is victorious over the Aquitanians. Battle of Coblenz. 55 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) defeats two Germanic tribes of the Tencteri and the Usipetes. Caesar makes first crossing of the Rhine River. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). First invasion of Britain. August 26, 55 BC Caesar invades Britain with eighty transports and two Roman legions. Lands at Albion, between Deal and Walmer. Caesar defeats the Britons. High tides destroy many Roman ships. Caesar returns back to Gaul. Pompey the Great and Marcus Licinius Crassus become Roman consuls. Marcus Licinius Crassus rules Syria. 55 BC Pompey the Great rules Spain. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). Second invasion of Britain. 54 BC Leads five Roman legions and some cavalry in 500 ships. Lands northeast of Dover. Battle of Verulamium. 54 BC (Part of Caesar’s Invasion of Britain). Crushes the army of Britain that is under Cassivellaunus, the Briton chief. Cassivellaunus, a British tribal leader, agrees to pay tribute to Rome. 54 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). Roman invasion and conquest of Britain by Julius Caesar. 54 BC Britain will not be truly subdued until the time of Emperor Claudius. Once again Caesar leaves Britain and returns to Gaul. Marcus Licinius Crassus pillages the Temple of Jerusalem. 54 BC Battle of Tongres. 54 BC (Part of Gallic Wars). Uprising in Gaul of the Eburones under Ambiorix and of the Nervii and Treviri. Ambiorix is driven off by a relief force led by Julius Caesar. Revolt of the Gauls under Vercingetorix, conquest of the Cenabaum, Avaricum and Lutetia Parisiorum. 53-52 BC Battle of Carrhae (Harran) in Northern Syria. 53 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Marcus Licinius Crassus leads an unprovoked attack on Parthia. His 6,000 man army is ambushed near Carrhae and devastated by Parthian archers. 5,500 Romans are killed and 500 are taken as slaves. Crassus is tricked into his death by execution by the Parthians. His army is routed into Mesopotamia. First Parthian War with Rome. 53 BC Caused by the invasion of Crassus. End of the First Triumvirate (60-53 BC). 53 BC Battle of Avaricum. 52 BC (Part of Gallic Wars). Julius Caesar, at the head of the Roman legions, storms into Avaricum (Bourges). Battle of Gergovia. 52 BC (Part of the Gallic Wars). Caesar gives up the siege of Gergovia (Clermont). Battle of Agendicum (Sens). 52 BC (Part of Gallic Wars). Titus Labienus with four Roman legions defeats the Gauls under Camulogenus. Battle of Alesia. 52 BC (Part of the Gallic Wars). Siege and surrender of the Gallic fortress of Alesia in Gaul (France). Gauls led by the Gallic chief Vercingetorix are crushed by the armies of Julius Caesar. Vercingetorix is taken to Rome in chains and beheaded. The Parthians overrun Syria and threaten Antioch. 52-51 BC Anarchy in Rome. 52 BC Pompey sides with the Roman Senate and is elected sole Consul in Rome without colleagues (“sine collega”) in an attempt to restore order. The Roman Senate rejects Caesar’s proposition that the armies be discharged simultaneously, but demands the dissolution of Caesar’s army and his resignation from his position. Cleopatra VII and her brother Ptolemy VIII become joint rulers of Ptolemaic Egypt. 51 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). Completion of the subjugation of Gallia or Gaul (modern France). 51 BC Julius Caesar. 51 BC “De Bello Gallico.” Completes his account of the Gallic War. The Roman Senate issues an “ultimate decision”. Jan. 7, 49 BC Pompey is charged with defending the Roman Republic against Caesar. The Senate orders Julius Caesar to give up his command in Gaul. Julius Caesar leads his armies from Gaul against Pompey. 49 BC Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon River into Italy. Jan. 10-11, 49 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon River with 7,000 men into Italy to fight Pompey (“alea jacta est”), a gesture of defiance, starting the civil war. Pompey himself and part of the Roman Senate flee to Greece. Second Civil War in Rome. 49-45 BC Julius Caesar vs. Pompey and the senatorial party (the Roman Senate). Battle of Ilerda. 49 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Julius Caesar marches into Spain, Pompey’s province, with an army of 40,000 men. Caesar conquers Spain (victory at Ilerda along the Segre River). Julius Caesar forces Pompey’s troops to surrender. Caesar crosses to Epirus. Battle of Utica. 49 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). G. Scribonius Curio lands at Utica in North Africa, with two Roman legions. Defeats the Pompeian forces in what is now called Tunisia. Battle of Bagradas River. 49 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). The adherents of Pompey in North Africa defeat the forces of G. Scribonius Curio. Battle of Illyria. 49 BC Supporters of Pompey defeat the supporters of Julius Caesar. Battle of Dyrrachium (Durrës, in modern Albania). 48 BC Julius Caesar vs Gnaeus Pompey. Battle of Pharsalus (also Pharsalia). August 9, 48 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Julius Caesar’s 22,000 man army defeats Pompey’s 45,000 man army in the decisive Battle of Pharsalus in Thessaly (Greece). 20,000 of Pompey’s troops surrender. Pompey flees for his life into Egypt. Julius Caesar pursues Pompey into Egypt. Pompey will be murdered in Egypt. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) meets Cleopatra VII in Egypt. 48 BC Battle of Alexandria. 48-47 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Julius Caesar is encircled at Alexandria, Egypt. Burning of the Library of Alexandria. Caesar is victorious at the Nile. Cleopatra VII, daughter of Ptolemy XI of Egypt, with the aid of Julius Caesar, is made Queen of Egypt (rules 47-30 BC). Cleopatra reigns jointly with Ptolemy XIII, her brother. 47 BC Cleopatra of Egypt becomes mistress of Julius Caesar. 47 BC Julius Caesar leaves Egypt for Syria. 47 BC Battle of Zela. August 2, 47 BC Julius Caesar defeats Pharnaces II, of Pontus, at Zela in Asia Minor. Sends the message “Veni, vidi, vici” to the Roman Senate. Julius Caesar sails to Tarentum and Italy and then goes back to Africa again. 47 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). “De Bello Civili.” c. 47 BC Antipater is appointed Roman procurator of Judaea by Julius Caesar. His son Herod is made Roman governor of Galilee. 47 BC Battle of Ruspina. Jan. 46 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Julius Caesar defeats Sextus, one of Pompey’s sons in north Africa. Africa is made a Roman province. Julius Caesar returns back to Rome with Cleopatra of Egypt. 46 BC Julius Caesar conquers Rome and Italy. 46 BC Battle of Thapsus. April 46 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Caesar’s victory at Thapsus over Metellus Pius Scipio, his former lieutenant Titus Labienus, Juba I of Numidia, and Sextus Pompey. All four are supporters of the late Pompey. Suicide of Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger at Utica upon learning of Caesar’s victories at Thapsus. 46 BC Romans celebrate the triumphs of Julius Caesar in Rome. 46 BC Julius Caesar lives with Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, in Rome. 46-44 BC Julius Caesar is made sole Consul of Rome for a period of ten years but he refuses to accept the crown. 46 BC Julius Caesar. Rules Rome, which now includes Gaul, Italy, part of Illyria, Macedonia, Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, and part of North Africa. 46-44 BC Rome adopts the Julian Calendar of 365.25 days. Introduction of leap year. 46 BC War against Caesar continues in Spain. 45 BC Battle of Munda. March 45 BC (Part of the Wars of the First Triumvirate). Victory of Julius Caesar over the two sons of Pompey at the Battle of Munda in Spain. Gnaeus Pompey, son of the late Pompey, is killed. Sextus Pompey, another of Pompey’s sons, escapes to northern Spain. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) emerges victorious after his military campaigns (49-45 BC) in the provinces against Pompey’s army. 45 BC Julius Caesar returns to Rome. 45 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) is made perpetual dictator of Rome for life (“dictator perpetuus”). 45 BC Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) adopts his grand nephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian). 45 BC Marcus Antonius (Marc Antony) offers Julius Caesar the royal diadem. Feb. 15, 44 BC Caesar refuses to accept it. Julius Caesar plans an expedition against the Parthians. 44 BC Cleopatra VII of Egypt kills her brother Ptolemy XIII by poison. 44 BC Her son Ptolemy XIV rules Egypt with his mother Cleopatra as co-ruler. Death of Julius Caesar. March 15, 44 BC Julius Caesar is stabbed to death, after a senatorial conspiracy, in the Roman Senate by a group led by Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus. It is the “Ides of March.” The Romans turn on the murderers of Julius Caesar. 44 BC His assassins flee from Rome. Julius Caesar (100-44 BC), in his will, had made his grand nephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian) his heir and his successor. 44 BC Battle of Mutina (modern Modena). April 43 BC (Part of the Wars of the Second Triumvirate). Formation of the Second Triumvirate by Gaius Octavius. Nov. 11, 43 BC The Second Triumvirate of Marcus Antonius, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and Gaius Octavian, Caesar’s grand nephew, rules Rome. Second Triumvirate lasts from 43-31 BC. Gaius Octavius rules the Provinces of Sicilia and Africa. 43 BC Mark Antony rules Cisalpine Gaul. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus rules Gallia Narbonensis and Spain. Reign of terror in Rome through proscriptions. 43 BC 130 Senators and 2,000 equestrians are killed. Cicero, Rome’s greatest orator, is prosecuted and killed by order of Marc Antony. Birth of P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid) (43 BC-17 AD). 43 BC Roman Senate founds the city of Lugdunum. 43 BC This is present day Lyon, France. A monument to Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) is erected in the Roman Forum, where he had been murdered in 44 BC. 42 BC Battle of Philippi. Oct.-Nov. 42 BC (Part of the Wars of the Second Triumvirate). Gaius Octavius and Marc Antony defeat G. Cassius Longinus and 20 days later, they defeat Marcus Junius Brutus at Philippi in Macedonia. Both Cassius and Brutus commit suicide. Marcus Antonius (Marc Antony) settles in Egypt. 41 BC Battle of Perusia. 41-40 BC (Part of the Wars of the Second Triumvirate). While Marc Antony is in Egypt, Octavian loyalists under Vipsanius Agrippa trap a rebel force in Perusia (modern Perugia). The rebels capitulate. Agreement of Brundisium (Brindisi). Nov. 40 BC Signed by Gaius Octavius and Marcus Antonius. Partition of the Roman Empire. Marc Antony receives Greece (the East). Gaius Octavian receives the West (Gaul). Marcus Aemilius Lepidus receives Africa. Italy is neutralized. Marc Anthony marries Octavian’s sister Octavia. 40 BC Parthians invade Syria, take Antioch and Sidon, and plunder Jerusalem. 40 BC advance as far as the Mediterranean Sea. The Parthians establish Antigonus. 40 BC He is the last Hasmonean King of Judaea. Roman conquest of Spain. 38 BC Phraates IV. Ruler of the Parthian Empire. 38-32 BC Return of Marc Antony to Egypt. 38 BC The “Laocoon.” Marble sculpture. 38 BC Marcus Antonius executes Antigonus the Hasmonean King of Judaea. End of the Hasmonean Dynasty. 37 BC Herod the Great, the second son of Antipater, rises to power by the friendship of Marc Antony. He is appointed King of the Jews (Judaea) by the Roman Senate. 37 BC Herod (rules 37-4 BC) takes possession of Jerusalem and Judaea. 37 BC With the tacit approval of the Roman Republic, Herod the Great eliminates All of the rest of the Hasmoneans. 37 BC Rome begins its rule of Palestine. 37 BC Roman rule will end in 476 AD. Roman ruler Marcus Aemillius Lepidus attempts to recover Sicily from Sextus Pompey, son of Gnaeus Pompey. 36 BC Gaius Octavius seizes lands in north Africa that are controlled by his fellow Roman ruler Marcus Aemillius Lepidus. 36 BC Marcus Antonius, still married to Octavia, bigamously marries Cleopatra VII in Egypt. They will have 3 sons. 36 BC Battle of Phraaspa. 36 BC (Part of the Wars of the Second Triumvirate). Marcus Antonius invades Parthia. The Parthians (Phraates IV) defeat Marcus Antonius. He is compelled to retreat with great losses. Marcus Antonius returns to Alexandria and settles with Cleopatra VII of Egypt. Marc Antony neglects his government responsibilities. 36 BC Battle of Mylae (Mylex). August 11, 36 BC Fought between the Second Triumvirate under the command of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and the Pompeians under Sextus Pompey led by Papias in the city of Mylae (modern Milazzo, Sicily). The Pompeians are defeated by M.V. Agrippa. Sextus Pompey escapes. Battle of Naulochus. Sept. 3, 36 BC Fought between the fleets of Sextus Pompey and M.V. Agrippa (admiral of Octavian) off Naulochus, Sicily. Pompeians are defeated. Sextus Pompey, son of Gnaeus Pompey (106-48 BC), is captured and executed by the troops of Marc Antony at Miletus in Asia Minor. 35 BC Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace). (85-8 BC). Roman poet, flourished. ca.35 BC Marcus Antonius gives Cleopatra’s children Roman Provinces. 34 BC Marc Anthony subdues Armenia. 34 BC Dalmatia becomes a Roman Province. 34 BC Marc Antony, formally divorces Octavia, the sister of Octavian. 32 BC The Roman Senate strips Marcus Antonius of his authority, leading to civil war. 32 BC Gaius Octavius declares war on Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII. 32 BC Civil war between Gaius Octavianus and Marc Antony. 32-30 BC Ptolemaic War. 32-30 BC Gaius Octavius eliminates Lepidus. 32 BC End of the Second Triumvirate (43-31 BC). 31 BC Battle of Actium. Sept. 2, 31 BC Julius Caesar’s grand nephew, Gaius Octavian, defeats the combined fleets of Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII at the naval Battle of Actium. Arrival of Gaius Octavian at Alexandria, Egypt. 31 BC Seizure of Alexandria by Gaius Octavius. August 2, 30 BC Suicides of Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII, of Egypt. 30 BC Following the suicides of Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII, Gaius Octavianus makes Egypt a Roman province (Aegyptus). 30 BC Cleopatra VII was the daughter of Ptolemy XI. End of the rule of the Ptolemies in Egypt. Beginning of Roman rule in Egypt. End of the Ptolemaic War (32-30 BC). 30 BC Gaius Octavianus is made the sole ruler of what is still the Roman Republic. 30 BC Gaius Octavian bestows increase of territory to Herod (Judaea). 30 BC The Pantheon, Rome. Begun. c.30 BC Will be completed in 124 AD. Titus Livius (Livy). Roman historian. Begins to write his monumental History of Rome. 29 BC Gaius Octavius back in Rome closes the Temple of Janus, signifying peace. 29 BC Herod “the Great” kills his wife, Mariamne. 29 BC All of Greece becomes a province assigned to the Roman Senate. 27 BC The Roman conquest of Greece had been completed in 146 BC. Octavian is given supreme power by the Roman Senate. Jan. 16, 27 BC The Roman Senate bestows the title of Emperor Augustus (the Venerated, the Illustrious) Caesar on Octavian. Octavian will rule from 27 BC until 14 AD. End of the Roman Republic that had been founded in 509 BC. Marks the beginning of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire will last from 27 BC until 476 AD. Octavian Augustus. Begins a two year expedition in Spain. 27-25 BC His objective is to subdue rebellious tribes there (the Cantabri and the Astures). Vergil (Publius Vergilius Maro) (70-19 BC). “The Aeneid.” c.27 BC Marcus Vitruvius. Roman architect and military engineer. “De Architectura.” c.27 BC On architecture and machinery. Herod begins extensive building operations in Judaea. 25 BC Rebuilds Samaria. Galatia (central Asia Minor), is inherited from King Amyntas. Becomes a Roman Province. 25 BC C. Aelius Gallus, Roman prefect of Egypt. Conducts an unsuccessful expedition to Arabia. 25 BC Octavianus Augustus resigns the consulship. 23 BC Adopts the unofficial title of Princeps-chief of the Republic. Petronius, the successor of C. Aelius Gallus in Egypt, wages successful war against the Ethiopians. 22-21 BC Campaign of Augustus against the Parthians. 20 BC Tigranes is reinstated in the kingdom of Armenia. 20 BC Rebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem by Herod, King of Judaea. 20-19 BC Phraates IV of Parthia. Restores the standards that had been taken from Crassus. 20 BC Completion of the subjugation of the tribes of Spain by Rome. 19 BC Claudius Drusus Germanicus (39-9 BC) is in the East. ca.19-17 BC Phraates IV of Parthia sends his sons as hostages to Rome. 18 BC Germanic tribes defeat Roman army under Marcus Lollius. c.16 BC As a result, Emperor Augustus and his general Tiberius Claudius Nero, carry out punitive campaigns in Gaul and Germany respectively. Moesia is made a Roman province. 16 BC Gaius Octavianus Augustus (63 BC-14 AD) is in Gaul. Reorganization of the provinces: Aquitania, Lugdunensis, Belgica. 16-13 BC Advance of Tiberius and Claudius Drusus, the Emperor Octavian’s stepsons, to the upper Danube. The Provinces of Raetia and Noricum are established. The Roman Empire now extends to the Upper Danube River. 15 BC Pax Romana. Roman Empire begins 200 years of peace which will end in 192 AD. 14 BC Revolt in Pannonia (what will later be northern Yugoslavia). 13 BC Subjugation of the Pannonians by Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar (Augustus’s stepson) and Agrippa. 13-9 BC The Germanic Wars of Claudius Drusus (four campaigns in Germania). Subjugation of the Batavians, Frisians, and Chauci. 12-9 BC After struggles with the Quadi and Marcomanni, Claudius Drusus leads Roman troops to the Elbe River. Organization of the left bank of the Rhine River into Germania superior and Germania inferior. 12-9 BC Battle of the Lippe River. 11 BC Claudius Drusus defeats a huge force of several Germanic tribes. Countries subject to Roman dominion. 10 BC In Europe: Italy, Spain, Britain, Gaul, Rhaetia, Vindelicia (now Augsburg), Noricum, Pannonia, Illyria, Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, Maesia, Dacia. In Asia: Asia Minor, Syria, Phonecia, Palestine, the northern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria. In Africa: Egypt, and the whole of the northern coast of Africa. Its distant territories are Scandia, Sarmatia, India, Aethiopia, and Galatia. The city of Rome itself is the center of the Roman Empire. Claudius Drusus Germanicus is killed in a fall from his horse. 9 BC First command of Tiberius (42 BC-37 AD) in Germania. Tiberius advances to the Elbe River. 8-6 BC Death of Virgil and Horace. 8 BC Death of Herod of Judaea. The Kingdom of Judea is partitioned among his three sons. 4 BC Herod Archaelaus is ethnarch of Samaria and Judaea. Herod Antipas is tetrarch of Galilee. Philip is tetrarch of Ituraea. Annexation of Judea by Rome. 4 BC

Eugene of Savoy (1663-1736). Having been refused a commission in the French army by Louis XIV, King of France, Eugene enters the Imperial army in the service of Austria, with the rank of colonel. 1683 Second Siege of Vienna by the Ottoman Turks. July-September 1683 The first moslem siege of Vienna was in 1529. Over 250,000 Turkish Mohammedans under Kara Mustapha, sent by Mohammed IV, Turkish sultan, arrive at Vienna (July 14). The Turkish army is brought up to the walls of Vienna by Hungarian Protestants. The defense of Vienna is left to Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg (1635-1701) in command of 12,000 troops. Starhemberg successfully defends Austria against the prolonged Turkish attack but towards the end the Turkish assaults seem certain to succeed. On September 12, John Sobieski III of Poland, after marching from Warsaw, Poland, arrives to the relief of Vienna with an army of 20,000 men. John George, Elector of Saxony, marches from Dresden with an army of 10,000 men. Max Emmanuel, Elector of Bavaria, marches from Munich with an army of eleven thousand men. Count Waloleck brings 8,000 Franconians from the Main River area. This brings up the available forces to 60,000 Christians (German and Polish troops). From the top of Kahlenberg mountain, John Sobieski leads the Christian army attack on the Ottoman Turkish siege lines. After a fierce battle, lasting throughout the day, the Mohammedans are defeated and routed with enormous loss. Jan Sobieski successfully raises the moslem siege of Vienna. The last Turkish Mohammedan attack on Vienna is defeated by Jan Sobieski of Poland (September 12, 1683). Vienna and all of Europe are saved by the combined Christian army from the Mohammedans. Beginning of the Great Turkish War (1683-1699). 1683 Austria and Poland are at war with the Ottoman moslems. Recapture of Gran (Hungarian: Esztergom) from the Mohammedans. 1683 Spanish declaration of war on France. 1683 Edmé Mariotte (1620-1684). French ecclesiastic and biologist. Develops the concept of Osmosis (the passage of one fluid into another through a membrane). 1683 Wild boars become extinct in Great Britain. 1683 William Penn signs peace treaty with North American Indians. 1683 Mennonites from Germany settle Germantown, near Philadelphia. 1683 Peter (Pedro) II. King of Portugal. 1683-1706 Christopher Wren (1632-1723). English architect. St. James’s, Piccadilly, London. 1683 Isaac Barrow (1630-1677). English. “Lectiones Mathematicae”. 1683-1685 His lectures of 1664, 1665, and 1666 are published posthumously. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). Dutch. Observes bacteria. Publishes the first drawing of bacteria. 1683 Bacteria will not be seen again for more than another century. John Théophile Desaguliers (1683-1744). Experiments with electricity. 1683 Introduces the words “conductor” and “insulator”.

Pope Leo IX. Backs the Normans against the Byzantines in Southern Italy, contributing to the east-west Church schism. 1054 A Supernova that now forms the Crab Nebula is observed in the East. July 4, 1054 It is visible for 22 months. Legates sent by Pope Leo IX appear at the Church of Hagia Sophia, at the beginning of services, and declare that all of their endeavors to re-establish union have been rejected by Michael Cerularius, Patriarch of Constantinople. July 16, 1054 The legates lay the papal bull of excommunication on the high altar and leave the church. Michael Cerularius rejects the “filioque” clause. Final and complete separation of the Christian Church into two distinct parts: the Western Roman Catholic Church at Rome and the Eastern or Greek Church at Constantinople. Reciprocal excommunication of Roman and Greek churches is announced. Leo IX is Pope, Michael Cerularius is the Patriarch of Constantinople. Henry I of France, Geoffrey of Anjou, and Theobald of Blois invade Normandy. 1054 William I, the Conqueror (b.1027-d.1087) successfully repels the combined invasion of their armies at Mortemer. Council at Sens. 1054 Condemns Berengarius of Tours in the controversy over the Real Presence or the transubstantiation of the Eucharist. Robert Guiscard (Norman) takes Benevento. 1054 Death of Pope Leo IX. 1054 Pope Victor II (1054-1057). Beginning of the conquest of West Africa by Almoravid Mohammedans under Abdallah ben Yassim. 1054 Battle of Dunsinane. July 27, 1054 Macbeth, the Scottish usurper, is defeated by Malcolm and Siward of Northumbria at Dunsinane. Casimir I of Poland takes back Silesia. 1054 Death of Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX. 1055 He is succeeded by Theodora, his sister-in-law, who rules 1055-1056. Seljuk Turks (Sunni Moslems) rise to power as their eastward migration increases their numbers in the empire. 1055 Fall of Baghdad (capital city) and the Arab Empire to the Seljuk Turks (Sunni Moslems). 1055 The Seljuk Turks are nomads from central Asia under the leadership of Tughril Beg. They invade Anatolia. They threaten the borders of the Byzantine Empire. Fernando I of Castile. Continues the Christian re-conquest of Portugal (Spain). 1055 Tostig, brother of Harold, becomes Earl of Northumbria. 1055 Death of German Emperor Heinrich III. 1056 Succeeded by his six year old son Heinrich IV (b.1050-d.1106). He will be under the guardianship of his mother Agnes of Poitou until 1061. Reign of Heinrich IV, Holy Roman Emperor: 1056-1106. Heinrich IV is of the Salian line of German emperors that rule the Holy Roman Empire. Conquest of Morocco by the Almoravid moslems, a nomadic people from the Sahara. 1056 Michael VI, Stratioticus. Byzantine Emperor. 1056-1057 Robert Guiscard (1015-1085). Norman. Succeeds his brother Humphrey as leader of the Normans in Apulia. 1057 Abdication of Michael VI, Byzantine Emperor. 1057 Isaac I, Comnenus. Byzantine Emperor. 1057-1059 Earthquake in Cilicia in Asia Minor. 1057 60,000 killed. Earthquake. China. Destruction of the city of Chihli (Hopei) China by earthquake. 1057 26,000 are killed. Battle of Lumphanan. 1057 Malcolm Canmore, son of Duncan I, defeats and kills Macbeth. Succeeded by Lulach, stepson of Macbeth. Lulach, King of Scotland 1057-1058. St. Hugh (1024-1109). Effects peace between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and Andrew, King of Hungary. 1057 Malcolm Canmore kills Lulach in battle. 1058 Becomes Malcolm III, King of Scotland. Rules 1058-1093. Richard of Aversa becomes Prince of Capua. 1058 Isaac Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor. Arrests Michael Cerularius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, and exiles him to Proconnesus. 1058 Charges him with heresy and treason and provides corroborative details. Death of Michael Cerularius, Patriarch of Constantinople, before coming to trial. 1058 Boleslav II, the Bold. King of Poland (king from 1076). 1058-1079 Battle of Varaville. 1058 William I, the Conqueror, of Normandy (b.1027-d.1087) defeats Geoffrey of Anjou at the Battle of Varaville. Church of Sant’Angelo in Formis, Italy. 1058-1075 Parma Cathedral. Begun (-1074). 1058 Supremacy of Tugrul Beg, Seljuk Turkish chieftain in Baghdad. 1058 Great famine throughout Poland. 1058 Thousands perish. Treaty of Melfi. 1059 Robert Guiscard (Norman) and Richard of Aversa, Prince of Capua, become papal vassals. Robert Guiscard (Norman) receives from Pope Nicholas II, title to Calabria, Apulia, and Sicily. 1059 This territory however still remains to be re-captured from the Mohammedans. Constantine Lichudes succeeds Michael Cerularius as the Patriarch of Constantinople. 1059 Synod of the Lateran (Rome). 1059 Sets up system of papal election by the newly established College of Cardinals. The Patzinaks cross the frozen River Ister (the Danube River). 1059 Isaac Comnenus. Byzantine Emperor. Patzinak campaign. 1059 Constantine X Ducas. Byzantine Emperor. 1059-1067 The Normans under the leadership of Robert Guiscard put an end to Byzantine rule in southern Italy. 1059 Beginning of the rapid decline of Byzantine power. 1059 “Jesus Christ the Ruler of the World.” 1060 Byzantine mosaic. Daphni, Greece. Death of Henry I, King of France. 1060 Philip I. King of France. 1060-1108 St. Anselm (1033-1109). Enters Bec, drawn by the fame of Lanfranc. 1060 Bonn Cathedral. Begun. 1060 Urnes Church. Norway. c.1060 The Normans take Reggio, completing the conquest of Calabria from the Byzantine Empire. 1060 Robert Guiscard (Norman). Becomes Duke of Apulia and Calabria. 1060 Robert Guiscard (Norman). Sends his brother Roger Guiscard to liberate the island of Sicily from the Mohammedans. 1061 Norman invasion of Sicily. 1061 Roger Guiscard lands near Masara at the head of an army of only 2,000 men and occupies the city. Beginning of the Norman conquest of Sicily (1061-1091). 1061 The Normans begin to put an end to the rule of the moslems in Sicily. Roger Guiscard (Norman) will lead his men against the Mohammedans until he is over 70 years old. Robert Guiscard becomes ruler of Sicily also. Bela I. King of Hungary. 1060-1063 Norman conquest of the important city of Messina, Sicily. 1061 Harold (Saxon) founds the church of the Holy Cross at Waltham. 1061 Boleslav II, the Bold, of Poland. Regains Upper Slovakia. 1061-1063 Malcolm Canmore, King of Scotland. Invades Northumbria. 1061 Mohammedan Almoravid Dynasty in North Africa. 1061 The Almoravids will later take control of parts of Spain. Berengarius of Tours. Rejects the doctrine of Transubstantiation (the Real Presence in the Eucharist). 1062 Harold, with the help of Tostig, the son of Godwin, leads an army into Wales (1062-1064). Defeats Welsh King Gruffydd ap Llewelyn (d.1063). Conquers Wales for Edward the Confessor, the King of England. 1063 Salomon (Solomon). King of Hungary. 1063-1074 William of Normandy (b.1027-d.1087). William conquers Maine, which extends his southern frontier almost to the Loire River. 1063 Lanfranc. Lanfranc is appointed to be the founding abbot of William the Conqueror’s monastery at Caen. 1063 Roger Guiscard (c. 1031-1101). Norman. Defeats a large moslem army at the Battle of Cerami. June 1063 Tughril Beg, the leader of the Seljuk Turks, dies. 1063 Alp Arslan (1029-1072). Succeeds Tughril Beg (his father) as ruler of the Seljuk Turks. 1063 Alp Arslan rules 1063-1073. The Seljuk Turks, Asian nomads, have become a major force in the Middle East. 1064 The Seljuk Turks under Alp Arslan, take Ani. Capture of Armenia from the Byzantine Empire by the Seljuk Turks under Alp Arslan. 1064 Cathedral of Pisa. Construction is begun on the Cathedral at Pisa, an example of the Romanesque style of architecture that flourishes in the 11th and 12th centuries. 1063 Will be completed 1118. Jaca Cathedral. Spain. 1063 Seizure of Belgrade by the Hungarians from the Byzantine Empire. 1064 The Nile River fails to flood and brings great famine and cannibalism. 1064-1072 Areas from Fustat to Cairo are cut off from supplies by the horsemen of the Lewata Berbers. 40,000 perish. “Ezzolied.” 1064 Written by German crusaders. William the Conqueror (1027-1087). Norman. Founds the Abbaye-aux Hommes, also known as St. Etienne, at Caen, France. 1064 La Trinité, Caen (Abbaye-aux Dames). 1064 Founded by Matilda, the wife of William the Conqueror. Harold of Wessex (English) is shipwrecked off the coast of Normandy. 1064 He is held for ransom by the Count of Ponthieu. William, Duke of Normandy, procures his release. Harold swears a solemn oath to support the claim of William of Normandy (b.1027-d.1087) to England. Harold of Wessex binds himself to assist William of Normandy in obtaining the succession of England upon the death of Edward the Confessor. The Cumans, having crossed the Danube River, overrun the Balkan area as far as Thessalonica. 1065 500,000 Uzes (Cumans) cross the Danube River, defeat Byzantine and Bulgarian forces, break into Thrace and Greece, and threaten Macedonia. This enemy is attacked by Patzinaks (Pechenegs) and Bulgarians. They are forced to retreat back over the Danube River. Sancho II. King of Castile. 1065-1072 Alfonso VI. King of León (1065-1109) and Castile (from 1072-1109). 1065 Northumbrians rebel against Tostig, the brother of Harold of Wessex. 1065 Harold of Wessex ends the rebellion in Northumbria. Tostig is exiled to Europe by Edward the Confessor (1003-1066). Edward the Confessor (b.1003-d.1066). Builds St. Peter’s Abbey at Westminster. 1065 This is the site of the present Abbey, where he will be buried in 1066. Consecration of Westminster Abbey. 1065 Wilhelm von Hirsau (d.1091). German Benedictine monk and scholar. Writes manuals on musical theory. c.1065 Oliver of Malmesbury. Constructs a glider on which he launches himself from a high place. 1065 He is killed. Sainte Foi Church. Conques, France. 1065-1130 Death of Saint Edward the Confessor (b.1003-d.1066). Jan. 5, 1066 Edward was King of England since 1042. At his death, Edward the Confessor leaves no Saxon heir to the throne. Edward names Harold II of Wessex his successor, though his cousin William of Normandy (b.1027-d.1087) claims the throne of England. Harold II of Wessex, in defiance of his oath to William of Normandy, procures his own Jan. 6, 1066 election as King of England by the Witan (council), the day after the death of Edward the Confessor. Harold II of Wessex will be King of England until October. William of Normandy obtains a bull from Pope Alexander II, which declares him to be the rightful heir to throne of England. 1066 Battle of Stamford Bridge. Sept. 25, 1066 Tostig and Harold III Haardraada, King of Norway, invade northern England. Harold II of England defeats them at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, killing them both. Norman invasion of England. Sept. 28, 1066 William of Normandy (b.1027-d.1087) lands at Pevensey in the south of England. William of Normandy is accompanied by Normans from Spain and Southern Italy. Appearance of a comet. 1066 Later will be called “Halley’s Comet.” William of Normandy (b.1027-d.1087). Establishes at Hastings a strong position for his entrenched camp. 1066 Battle of Hastings. October 14, 1066 Norman invasion and conquest of England led by William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy. William, Duke of Normandy, defeats the Saxons under Harold II and conquers England at Hastings. Marks ending of the Anglo-Saxon rule in England. Harold II, the last Saxon king of England, is killed in battle. William of Normandy had 8,000 men, the Saxon king Harold II had an equal 8,000 man force. William I. Decrees that the altar of a great commemorative church, Battle Abbey, should stand on the exact spot where Harold II, King of England, fell in battle. 1066 William founds Abbey at Hastings (1067). William of Normandy (crowned “the Conqueror”) is made King of England at Westminster Abbey. Dec. 25, 1066 William I rules 1066-1087. William I, the Conqueror (b.1027-d.1087), is the first Norman King of England. England and Normandy are now united into one kingdom for almost 150 years until 1204. Four Norman kings will rule in England. 1066-1154 William I, the Conqueror, William II Rufus, Henry I Beauclerc, and Stephen of Blois. Olaf III. King of Norway. 1066-1093 The Norman conquest will continue for another four years until 1070. William I, the Conqueror, subjugates the north of England (the “Harrying of the North”). 1066-1070 Tournai Cathedral. In what is now called Belgium. 1066 Third uprising of the pagan Wends (Slavs) in eastern Germany. 1066 Murder of Gottschalk. William I, King of England. Orders the construction of castles in all major cities in England. 1066 Beginning of Norman (Romanesque) style of architecture in England (until after 1200). 1066 Fotheringay Castle. Northamptonshire. Begun. 1066 William I the Conqueror. Founds Battle Abbey at Hastings. 1067 Rebuilding of the ancient Monastery of Monte Casino in Italy. 1067 Monte Casino was originally founded by St. Benedict of Nursia. Boleslav II of Poland takes Kiev. 1067 Malcolm III (son of Duncan), King of Scotland, marries St. Margaret of Scotland, an English princess. 1067 Margaret advances Roman Catholicism in Scotland. Eudoxia. Byzantine empress. 1067 She is the widow of Constantine X. The Bayeux Tapestry is begun. c.1067 Actually it is an embroidery and not a true tapestry. It tells the story of Harold of Wessex in 1065-1066 and of his final defeat at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Battle of Misilmeri (Sicily). 1068 Roger Guiscard (Norman) defeats moslem forces in Sicily. The Norman invasion of England (1066) is followed by a severe winter, which brings famine and plague to England. 1068-1069 50,000 perish. Romanus IV Diogenes. Byzantine Emperor. 1068-1071 The Normans wrest Otranto, Italy from the Byzantine Empire. 1068 Romanus IV Diogenes. Byzantine Empire repels the continued advance of the Seljuk Turks in Armenia. 1068-1069 William the Conqueror (b.1027-d.1087). Defeats the Danish invasion of northern England. 1069 Famine in Egypt. 1069-1072 William the Conqueror (b.1027-d.1087). Invites papal legates to come to England and inaugurate the reform of the Roman Catholic Church in England. 1070 Hereward the Wake begins a Saxon revolt (1070-1071) in the Fens of eastern England. 1070 Lanfranc (c.1010-1089), Italian Benedictine Abbot. 1070 Lanfranc is made the Archbishop of Canterbury (1070-1089) by William the Conqueror. Lanfranc begins the rebuilding of Canterbury Cathedral, which had been destroyed earlier. Lanfranc reforms the Roman Catholic Church in England. Founding of the “Order of St. John” in Jerusalem by Italians. c.1070 (“Knights of Saint John”). York Cathedral. Begun. 1070 Bayeux Cathedral, France. c.1070 Founding of Hirsau Abbey in Germany as the first of the German Cluniac churches (later will be destroyed). ca.1070 Battle of Manzikert. August 1071 Romanus IV Diogenes leads an army of 40,000 Byzantines to relieve Manzikert (Malazkirt) in Armenia. He encounters a force of 70,000 mounted Seljuk Turks, led by Alp Arslan, the second sultan of the Seljuk Turks. The Byzantine army of Emperor Romanus IV is defeated by the Seljuk Turks. Seljuk Turks crush Byzantine power in Anatolia. Romanus IV is taken prisoner but is released by Alp Arslan. This terrible defeat cuts off Constantinople’s military recruiting ground and ensures the eventual downfall of Constantinople and the entire Byzantine Empire (1453). As a result of their defeat of the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert, the Seljuk Turks conquer most of Asia Minor (Anatolia). 1071 Robert Guiscard (1015-1085). Norman ruler. Defeats Byzantines at Bari. Guiscard captures Bari and Brindisi in Italy. Bari is the last Byzantine citadel in Southern Italy. 1071 Robert Guiscard drives the Byzantines from Apulia. Robert Guiscard conquers the last Byzantine possessions in Italy. Robert Guiscard ends Byzantine power in Italy. Marks the permanent end of Byzantine rule in Italy. Roger Guiscard (1031-1101). Norman. Roger Guiscard is the younger brother of Robert Guiscard (1015-1085). Roger Guiscard assumes the title of count of Sicily. 1071 The Norman re-conquest of Sicily from the moslem occupiers will continue for another twenty years until 1091. William I the Conqueror (b.1027-d.1087). Invades Scotland. 1071 William I, the Conqueror (b.1027-d.1087). Smashes the resistance led by the Saxon Hereward the Wake. 1071 William I receives the submission of Hereward the Wake. William the Conqueror (b.1027-d.1087). Completes the conquest of all of England that he had begun in 1066 at the Battle of Hastings. 1071 Michael VII Ducas. Byzantine Emperor. 1071-1078 Seljuk Turks under Alp Arslan capture Jerusalem from the Fatïmids. 1071 Seljuk Turks cut off Christian pilgrim routes to the city of Jerusalem. This will later lead to the First Crusade. Michael VII, Byzantine Emperor, appeals to the pope for help against t he invading moslems. 1072 The Greek Church had completely separated itself from the Catholic Church in 1054. He does not receive it. Robert Guiscard (1015-1085). Norman. Conquest of Palermo, Sicily from the Moslems. 1072 William I, the Conqueror (b.1027-d.1087). Forces Malcolm, King of Scotland, to do homage to him. 1072 Death of Peter Damian (b.1007). Benedictine order. 1072 Wrote many polemical tracts. Alp Arslan dies and is succeeded by his son Malik Shah I. 1072 Malik Shah I rules the Seljuk Turks 1072-1092. Abbay-aux-Hommes, known as the Church of St. Etienne, Caen, France. Founded by William the Conqueror, King of England. 1072 La Trinité is built in Caen. 1072 Alfonso VI. King of Castile (1072-1109) and León (1065-1109). 1072-1109 Reconquers territory in Spain from the Mohammedans. Re-captures Christian domains to Toledo (1085). Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). St. Stanislaus (1030-1079). Becomes the seventh Bishop of Cracow (to 1079). 1072 George II. King of Georgia. 1072-1089 Beginning of the papacy of Pope Gregory VII (Hildebrand of Soana). 1073 Pope 1073-1085. Birthplace: Tuscany. Immediately attempts to reform the problems of the Catholic Church. He sets about to establish two major reforms - the enforcement of the celibacy of the priesthood and the suppression of simony. The Saxons, under Otto of Nordheim revolt against Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV. Aug. 1073 Henry IV. Holy Roman Emperor. Successfully crushes a major rebellion of the Saxons in Saxony led by Otto of Nordheim. 1073-1074 Famine in England causes mass mortality so severe that the living are too weak to care for the sick or even bury the dead. 1073 Thousands perish. Council at Westminster Abbey. 1074 Illegally accuses St. Wulfstan (also Wulstan), c.1008-1095, of being unfit to be a bishop and orders him to surrender his episcopal ring and staff, that had originally been given to him by King Edward the Confessor. Wulfstan does not. He is the only bishop allowed to retain his see after William’s conquest. Peace of Gerstungen. 1074 Between Henry IV, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and the Saxons. The Saxons, however, will later revolt once again. Pope Gregory VII. Excommunication of all married Catholic priests. 1074 Pope Gregory VII. Excommunicates Robert Guiscard for encroaching on the territory of the Papal States. 1074 Geza I. King of Hungary. 1074-1077 Henry IV (b.1050-1106), Holy Roman Emperor. Personally appoints a number of bishops, beginning the struggle with the Roman Catholic Church over Lay Investiture. 1075 Old Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Spain. 1075 (St. James Cathedral). Synod of Rome. 1075 Severely condemns simony (the buying of promotions in the Church), clerical marriage, and lay investiture. Henry IV. Holy Roman Emperor. Defeats the Saxons at Homburg-on-Unstrutt. June 1075 Pope Gregory VII issues a decree abolishing lay investiture. 1075 Beginning of the dispute between the Pope and the Emperor Henry IV over who can appoint bishops and abbots. Pope Gregory VII insists on maintaining papal powers (including the exclusive right to make and depose bishops). This begins the 47 year long lay investiture struggle between the popes and emperors (to 1122). Richmond Castle, Yorkshire, England. 1075 Condemnation and execution by burning, of a Cathar heretic at Cambrai. Pope Gregory VII will excommunicate the inhabitants of Cambrai for this action in 1076. 1075 Malik Shah, ruler of the Seljuk Turks. Conquers Damascus (Syria) and Palestine. 1075 Dispute between Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV over the succession to the archdiocese of Milan (lay investiture). 1076 Each threatens the other with deposition. Synod of Worms. Jan. 1076 Synod of German Catholic bishops is called at Worms (now in West Germany) by Henry IV. A high point in Henry’s conflict with the pope over lay investiture. The Synod of German bishops decide by vote that Gregory VII should be deposed from his office. German bishops, backed by Heinrich IV, Holy Roman Emperor, declare Pope Gregory VII deposed. 1076 Gregory VII. Answers Henry IV by declaring that he is dethroned. 1076 Declares Henry IV, and all of the German bishops supporting him, deposed and excommunicated. This is the first excommunication of a king by a Pope. The Princes of southern Germany rebel against Henry IV. Oct. 1076 They meet at Tribur in October to seek an alliance with the Pope. Baghdad, a Mohammedan city, is inundated by an overflow of the Tigris River. 1076 Unknown number of people are killed. Sancho III. King of Navarre. 1076-1094 (Sancho I of Aragon 1065-1094). Harold III Hen. King of Denmark. 1076-1080 The princes of Germany propose a meeting in Augsburg in Feb. 1077 to be held under the Pope. 1077 The primary objective of the meeting is the dismissal of Emperor Henry IV and the election of a new ruler. Without papal support, Emperor Heinrich IV faces new German revolts. Henry IV makes the bitter journey across the Alps. Gregory VII, already on his way to the Augsburg council, receives Henry IV at the castle of Canossa, Italy, not far from Parma. Jan. 1077 The gates of Canossa are closed against Emperor Henry IV. Emperor Henry IV stands outside of the castle in the bitter January snow, barefoot, in coarse penitential garb, and stripped of all his regalia. Henry IV humbles himself before Pope Gregory VII for three days in the snow during a bitter winter. Henry IV begs for the forgiveness of Pope Gregory VII. Gregory VII absolves Henry IV. Henry IV is released from his excommunication. At Forchheim, many Dukes of Germany still refuse to reaccept Henry IV. The Dukes declare the king Henry IV deposed, and elect Rudolph of Swabia as king. Mar. 1077 Revolt of Rudolph of Swabia against Heinrich IV starts civil war (to 1080) in the Holy Roman Empire. 1077 Founding of the first English Cluniac monastery at Lewes Abbey. 1077 St. Albans Abbey. Begun. 1077 Earliest surviving church built in the Anglo-Norman style of architecture. Saint Ladislaus of Hungary (b.1040-d.1095). Son of King Bela I, is elected King of Hungary. 1077 Rules 1077-1095. Hungarian prosperity increases under Ladislaus I. Conquered Croatia. Michael Psellus. “Chronographia.” c.1077 A personal account of events between the years 996 and 1077. Robert Guiscard (1015-1085). Norman. Captures Salerno, Italy back from the Mohammedans. 1077 Famine and plague. Constantinople. 1078 Thousands perish. St. Anselm becomes Abbot of Bec. 1078 The invading Seljuk Turks take control of the city of Nicea. 1078 Martyrdom of St. Stanislaus (1030-1079), Bishop of Cracow. He is murdered by Boleslaus II, the King of Poland. April 11, 1079 Boleslaus II, King of Poland, is driven from his throne. 1079 Ladislaus I Herman. King of Poland. 1079-1102 Tower of London. Begun by Bishop Gundulf (to 1300). 1078 Nicephorus III Botaniates. Byzantine Emperor. 1078-1081 Council of Rome. 1079 Condemnation of Berengarius again at Rome. Berengarius rejects the Real Presence in the Eucharist (Transubstantiation). Berengarius several times recanted before his death in 1088. Frederick of Staufen marries a daughter of Emperor Henry IV and is made Duke of Swabia. 1079 Lund Cathedral. Sweden. Romanesque style. Begun. 1080 Originally built by Donatus, a Lomband architect. Will be completed in 1146. William I, King of England. Refuses to do homage as a papal vassal. 1080 Pope Gregory VII. Deposes and excommunicates Emperor Heinrich IV for the second time. Gregory VII recognizes Rudolph of Swabia as the rightful ruler. Mar. 1080 Henry IV once again calls his own synod to depose Gregory VII. 1080 German and pro-German bishops declare Gregory VII deposed. Heinrich IV, Emperor of Germany. Ends civil war in the empire by killing Rudolph of Swabia. 1080 Terrible famine throughout Denmark. 1080 Thousands perish. Canute IV, the Saint. King of Denmark. 1080-1086 Ely Cathedral. England. 1080-1140 Toledan table of positions of stars is produced at Toledo, Spain. 1080 Church of St. Ambrogio (Ambrose). Milan, Italy. 1080-1120 St. Hugh of Grenoble (1052-1132). Elected Bishop of Grenoble. 1080 St. Savin-sur-Gartempe is begun in Poitou, France. c.1080 Romanesque style architecture. Consecration of Otranto Cathedral. 1080 Armenian state established in Cilicia. 1080 St. Sernin in Toulouse, France. 1080-1096 This is a large pilgrimage church. Founding of the Hospital of St. John, the Almoner, for pilgrims at Jerusalem, near the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. 1080 Knights will later establish the Hospital of St. John in Jerusalem. The order will be formally approved by Pope Paschal II in 1113. William I, King of England invades Wales. 1081 Norman-Byzantine Wars. 1081-1085 Robert Guiscard (1015-1085). Invasion of the Balkans. 1081 Robert Guiscard (1015-1085). Improvises a fleet, and defeats the Byzantine navy off Durazzo. 1081 The Normans under Robert Guiscard (1015-1085) besiege the fortress of Durazzo, which is defended by Byzantines (Greeks and Macedonians) under George Paleologus. July 17, 1081 Beginning of the reign of Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus. Alexius I rules 1081-1118. 1081 The Normans under Robert Guiscard, besieging the fortress of Durazzo (since July 17), are now reduced to 18,000 men. The Normans are attacked by a force of over 75,000 Byzantines, under Alexius I Comnenus. Robert Guiscard defeats the Byzantines. Oct. 18 1081 The city however still holds out. Henry IV, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, marches with an army into Italy. 1081 This is part of the Lay Investiture conflict. Old St. Paul’s Church in London, England. Rebuilding begins. 1081 Will be destroyed in the fire of London in 1666. Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar (“El Cid”) is exiled as a result of a conflict with Alfonso VI. 1081 They are estranged for five years. Robert Guiscard (1015-1085). Norman. Invasion of Albania by the Normans. 1082 Robert Guiscard, transports his army to Durazzo (now in Albania). 1082 Robert Guiscard (1015-1085) makes a surprise night attack on the city of Durazzo (now Feb. 8, 1082 in Albania). Robert Guiscard finally succeeds in capturing Durazzo from the Byzantine forces. Robert Guiscard takes Corfu from the Byzantine Empire. 1082 Robert Guiscard, after defeating the forces of Alexius I Comnenus, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire, marches across Epirus and Thessaly, almost to Salonika. 1082 The Byzantine Empire appeals to Venice for help against Robert Guiscard and the Normans. 1082 Venice and the Byzantine Empire establish a trade treaty. 1082 Byzantine Empire grants Venice important trading concessions in exchange for help against attacks launched by the Norman Robert Guiscard. 1082 Destruction of Norman fleet by Venetians (not far from Durazzo). 1082 Henry IV of Germany lays siege to Rome (until 1084). 1082 Bohemund, the oldest son of Robert Guiscard, takes much of Macedonia from the Byzantine Empire. 1083 St. Etienne in Nevers, France. 1083-1097 Cluniac Abbey built in the Romanesque style of architecture. Emperor Henry IV takes Rome. 1084 He imprisons Pope Gregory VII at the Castel Sant’Angelo, Rome. Henry IV summons Pope Gregory VII to crown him Roman Emperor. Pope Gregory VII of course refuses to crown him. Henry IV installs an antipope, Clement III, who crowns and appoints him like he had wanted Pope Gregory VII to do. 1084 Pope Gregory VII, shut up in the castle of Sant’Angelo, sends a request to Robert Guiscard (Norman), Duke of Apulia, for help against Henry IV. 1084 Robert Guiscard receives the desperate appeal from Pope Gregory VII to come and save him from Henry IV. Robert Guiscard leaves his army in Thessaly, hurries back to Italy, and raises a new army of Normans and Italians. 1084 The Mohammedans in southern Italy loot and burn the churches of Reggio and enslave all the Christian monks. 1084 Robert Guiscard appears in Italy at the head of a Norman army of 36,000 men. 1084 Guiscard approaches the city of Rome. On the approach of the Normans, the Germans prudently withdraw. Henry IV retreats back to Germany. Robert Guiscard. Drives Heinrich IV from Rome. 1084 Robert Guiscard captures Rome from the Germans. Robert Guiscard frees Pope Gregory VII from prison. Pope Gregory VII had been imprisoned by Henry IV at the Castel Sant’Angelo, Rome. Uprising of the people of Rome against the army of Robert Guiscard. The Romans rise up against the Normans in Rome. 1084 Robert Guiscard. Forces the anti-pope Clement III to leave the city of Rome. 1084 Robert Guiscard, the Norman duke, removes Pope Gregory VII from Rome and its hostile people. 1084 Norman troops of Robert Guiscard enter into and sack Rome. Robert Guiscard suppresses the revolt of the people of Rome. 1084 Pope Gregory VII flees with them to Salerno. Seljuk Turks are in Asia Minor. Seljuk Turks siege Antioch, the last Byzantine bulwark in Syria. 1084 Bohemund, the oldest son of the Norman Robert Guiscard, returns and reports that his army in Greece has been destroyed by Alexius I Comnenus, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 1084 St. Bruno of Cologne (c.1030-1101). Founds the Carthusian Order at La Grande Chartreuse in the French Alps. The Monks take the name Carthusians from the word Chartreuse (the neighboring area was called Cartusia). 1084 Robert Guiscard. Builds a third fleet of ships, and defeats the Venetian navy of Corfu. 1084 Hospital is established at Canterbury. 1084 Lay Investiture Controversy. 1085-1122 Struggle between the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire over the question of “lay investiture” (the appointment of bishops by secular rulers). Liberation of Toledo from the Moslems. 1085 Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Conquest of Toledo from the Mohammedans by the Christians led by Alfonso VI of Castile, after a three year siege. Rodrigo Diaz (“El Cid”) leads the Christian struggle to reconquer Spanish lands that had been taken over by the moslems in 711. Robert Guiscard (1015-1085) takes the Ionian isle of Cephalonia. 1085 Byzantines and Venetians defeat the Normans off Corfu. 1085 Death of Robert Guiscard (Norman) on the isle of Cephalonia. May 1085 He is seventy years old. The Normans abandon the invasion of the Balkan Peninsula. 1085 The Normans evacuate after the death of Robert Guiscard. Norman Italy accepts Roger Guiscard as its ruler. 1085 Canute IV. King of Denmark. Attempts an invasion of England. 1085 England has been under Norman rule since 1066. Mainz Cathedral. Germany. Romanesque style cathedral. Rebuilt. 1085 William I, King of England (b.1027-d.1087). Orders the compilation of Domesday Book, a survey of England. 1085 Pope Gregory VII dies in exile at Salerno. May 25, 1085 Vratislav, Duke of Bohemia, is crowned king. 1085 “Annolied.” Germany. Historical poem celebrating the life of Archbishop Anno of Cologne. 1085 England is inundated by rain. 1086 Plague, fever, and famine follow. Thousands perish. Until 1087. Canute IV, the Saint, King of Denmark, is assassinated in Denmark. 1086 Failure of the Danish invasion of England. Olaf II. King of Denmark. 1086-1095 Roger Guiscard (1031-1101). Recaptures Syracuse, Sicily from the moslem forces. 1086 Almoravids enforce Mohammedan rule in Spain. 1086 Famine. Denmark. 1087 Famine so terrible that King Olaf II is surnamed the “Hungry.” Thousands perish. Continued famine and great pestilence in England. 1087 Thousands perish. Death of William I, King of England (1027-1087). 1087 William dies at Rouen from internal injuries he had sustained in a fall while campaigning against Philip I, King of France. William is succeeded by his sons William II, Rufus (rules 1087-1100) in England, and Robert II, the eldest son of William, as Duke of Normandy (rules 1087-1106). Robert of Normandy will later be one of the leaders of the First Crusade. Tewkesbury Abbey. England. Begun. 1087 Conrad, the eldest son of Henry IV, is crowned king of Germany. 1087 Pope Victor III. 1086-1087 (Desiderius, Abbot of Montecassino). The Mohammedans in Spain call for the aid of Yusuf ibn-Tashfin, chief of the Almoravids. Ibn-Tashfin lands at Algeciras, west of Gibraltar, and proceeds to march northward. 1086 Battle of Zalaca. Spain. Oct. 23, 1086 Ibn-Tashfin defeats Alfonso VI. Alfonso VI escapes back to Toledo. 24,000 Christian soldiers are killed. The Mohammedans cut the heads off the corpses. Alfonso VI calls for Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar (“El Cid”) to help against Yusuf Yusuf Ibn-Tashfin. Moslem rule of Yusuf Ibn-Tashfin in southern Spain. 1086-1106 The body of St. Nicholas of Myra (270-343) is taken from Myra in Asia Minor and brought to Bari, Italy. 1087 Church of St. Nicholas of Bari, Italy. 1087-1089 This is the first significant Norman church that is built in Southern Italy. The crypt contains the body of St. Nicolas of Myra (270-343). The Church will be consecrated in 1089. Urban II becomes Pope (1088-1099). 1088 Founding of the University of Bologna. ca.1088 Patzinak Turks settle between the Danube River and the Balkans. 1088 Flooding of Baghdad by an overflow of the Tigris River. 1088 Number of dead is unknown. David IV. King of Georgia. 1089-1125 Abbey church at Vézelay. 1089 Abbey Church of Cluny (the third). The greatest of all the Romanesque Churches. France. Begun. 1089 Will be completed in 1130. The Church will largely be destroyed by the French revolutionaries during the French Revolution. Gloucester Cathedral. England. Begun. 1089 Sancho Ramirez, King of Aragon, does homage as a papal vassal. 1089 Death of Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury. May 1089 Canterbury will be vacant for four years. First water driven mechanical clock is built by the Chinese (Peking). 1090 Berengar II, Count of Barcelona, does homage as a papal vassal. 1090 Constantinople. 1090 Continuous floods for months. Number of dead is unknown. Bonizo of Sutri. “Liber de Vita Christiana”. ca.1090 Provides a code of living for the Christian knight. Ingo I. King of Sweden. 1090-1112 Hasan ibn al-Sabbah, acquires the mountain fortress of Alamat. Takes the title of Sheikh al-Jabal. He is the first “Old Man of the Mountain”. Founds the Empire of Assassins sect in Persia. 1090 Henry IV wages war in Italy. 1090-1097 Roger Guiscard (son of Robert Guiscard). Re-captures Malta from the Mohammedans. 1090 Ivo. Bishop of Chartres. 1090-1116 Birth of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153). 1091 Noto, the last Mohammedan stronghold in Sicily, is liberated by the Normans. The Christians (Normans) complete the re-capture of all of Sicily from the Mohammedan occupiers. 1091 The Normans under Roger Guiscard (c.1031-1101) began the re-capture of Sicily in 1061. Sicily is now able to come back to the mainstream of European life, from which it had been cut off during 264 years of Mohammedan rule. The Mohammedans had captured Sicily in 827. Christian reconquest of Corsica from the Mohammedans. 1091 Treaty of Caen. 1091 Between William II, Rufus, King of England, and Robert II, Duke of Normandy. Alexius I Comnenus. Defeats the Patzinaks by the river Leburnium. April 1091 Walcher of Malvern. English. Observation of a lunar eclipse in Italy. 1091 Malcolm III, King of Scotland, invades England. 1091 Condemnation of Nominalism by the Catholic Church. 1092 Spain is under the control of the Almoravides (moslem). 1092 William II Rufus, King of England, conquers Cumberland, previously claimed by the Scottish. 1092 Carlisle Castle. Begun. 1092 Kilidy Arslan I. First Sultan of Rùm (Roum). 1092-1106 Mohammed (Mahmud) I. Sultan of the Seljuk Empire. 1092-1094 Death of Malik Shah I, Sultan of the Seljuk Empire. 1092 The Seljuk capital is moved from Iconium to Smyrna. St. Anselm (1033-1109). Italian. Becomes Archbishop of Canterbury, England. 1093 Until his death in 1109. Hugh le Gros. Founds Benedictine Monastery. Chester, England. 1093 Durham Cathedral. 1093-1133 First Norman Cathedral in England. Abbey Church of Maria Laach. Germany. 1093-1156 Great famine. England. 1093 Thousands perish. Malcolm III, King of Scotland. Killed near Alnwick during his attempted invasion of England. Nov. 1093 He is succeeded by his brother Donald Bane. Rules 1093-1097. Leaders of Scottish clans force St. Margaret of Scotland (1045-1093) and her son Duncan II into exile. 1093 Death of St. Margaret of Scotland (1045-1093). November 16, 1093 Magnus II, “the Barefoot”. King of Norway. 1093-1103 Pilgrimage of Peter the Hermit to the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. 1093 Roscelin of Compiègne, whose Nominalism had previously led him to tritheism in theology, abandons his views after a controversy with St. Anselm of Canterbury. The Tritheistic Heresy is that there are three gods. 1093 Christian doctrine is that of the indivisible Trinity, one God (monotheism). Raymond IV. Count of Toulouse. 1093-1105 Civil war temporarily breaks up the Seljuk Empire. 1094 Berkyaruq (Barkiarok). Fifth Sultan of the Seljuk Empire. 1094-1105 El Cid (Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar). Re-captures Valencia from the Mohammedans after a twenty month siege. This is part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). June 17,1094 Battle of Cuarte. Oct. 1094 The Almoravids under Yusuf Ibn-Tashfin leave Morocco and land near Valencia, Spain with an army of over 50,000 Mohammedans. The Mohammedans camp at Cuarte planning to starve the population of the city of Valencia. Instead, El Cid attacks and the Mohammedans are forced to flee. Completion of St. Mark’s Cathedral in Venice (begun 976). 1094 Anselm of Canterbury demands the return of Church properties that were confiscated by the king of England after the death of Lanfranc, the previous Archbishop of Canterbury. Marks the beginning of the dispute between William II, Rufus, King of England and St. Anselm, the Archbishop of Canterbury. 1094 Pedro I. King of Aragon. 1094-1104 Pestilence in Europe. 1094 Alfonso VI (b.1030-d.1109) of León and Castile. Alfonso VI gives the country of Portugal to Henry, Count of Burgundy (b.1057-d.1112). 1094 Henry of Burgundy. King of Portugal. 1094-1112 Portugal is ruled by the House of Burgundy. 1094-1383 Synod of Piacenza held by Pope Urban II. 1095 Alexius I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor, sends legates to Pope Urban II with a request for military aid against the Seljuk Turks who have conquered nearly all of Asia Minor. Council of Clermont (November 18-28). Nov. 27, 1095 Proclamation of the First Crusade by Pope Urban II. Pope Urban II (pope: 1088-1099) convinces the knights and princes of the west by his famous sermon to join in the Crusade (Deus lo volt = God wills it) in order to rescue the Holy Land from the Moslems. Jerusalem becomes the password, the white cross, the symbol. Opening of the Era of the Crusades (1095-1291). 1095 Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, organizes the First Crusade. 1095 Hospital Brothers of St. Antony (Antonine Hospitallers), a congregation, is founded by Gaston de Dauphiné, to care for pilgrims and invalids. 1095 This order is named after St. Antony the Great of Egypt (251-356). Plague. London, England. Thousands perish. 1095 Plague throughout Ireland. Thousands perish. 1095 Loarre Castle. 1095 Romanesque style castle in Spain. Eric I. King of Denmark. 1095-1103 Koloman. King of Hungary. 1095-1114 Koloman. Conquest of Croatia and Dalmatia by the Hungarians. 1095 Arrival of Peter the Hermit at Cologne in western Germany on Holy Saturday April 12, 1096. 1096 About fifteen thousand people have already joined him. Start of the First Crusade (1096-1099). 1096 The Normans are under Bohemund of Otranto (Taranto), the Provençals are under Raymond IV of Count Toulouse, the Lorrainers are under Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, and Baldwin of Flanders. There will be no actual fighting, however, until 1097. The People’s Crusade. 1096 About 500,000 people led by Peter the Hermit march to Constantinople. There they join forces with Walter the Penniless (French knight). The Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus ships them across the Bosphorus Sea to Asia Minor. Massacre of the People’s Crusade. 1096 The first unorganized campaign is led by the hermit Peter of Amiens, who inspired the masses by his crusading sermons. Disintegration of the People’s Crusade under the attacks of the Bulgars and the Seljuk Turks. Out of the original 500,000 people only 25,000 survive after the massacre. Crusaders kill Jews at Trier, Worms, Mainz, and Cologne as they advance along the Main and the Danube River. 1096 Persecution of the Jews takes place during the First Crusade. 1096-1099 The major accusations concern the Jewish rejection of Jesus Christ. Nave of the Norwich Cathedral. England. 1096-1145 Anglo-Norman style of architecture. St. Madeleine at Vézelay, France. Large French Church (Cluniac Abbey). 1096-1132 Birth of Hugh of Saint-Victor (1096-1141). 1096 Battle of Huesca. 1096 Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Pedro I of Aragon and Navarre attacks the fortress city of Huesca, which had been held by the Mohammedans since the eighth century. The Christian army storms the city and successfully captures it. Pedro I makes it his capital. Organized army of Crusaders (700,000) led by the nobility of Europe arrive by different routes at Constantinople. 1097 The Crusaders cross the Bosphorus Sea. 1097 Battle of Nicaea. May-June 1097 The Crusaders are commanded by a council of European leaders that include Bohemond, the Norman prince of Taranto, Tancred, the nephew of Bohemund, Baldwin of Boulogne, Raymond IV of Toulouse, Godfrey of Bouillon, Robert of Normandy, Robert of Flanders, Hugh of Vermandois, and Stephen of Blois. The Crusaders breach the outer walls of the city on June 18. The moslem garrison wisely surrenders to the Crusaders. Crusaders present the city to Alexius I Comnenus, the Byzantine Emperor. The Crusaders take back Nicaea, the chief Seljuk center in Asia Minor. The French knight, Walter the Penniless is killed in the Battle of Nicaea. Battle of Dorylaeum (First). June 30-July 1, 1097 First column of the army of Crusaders, of about 10,000 men under Bohemund of Taranto, is ambushed by a huge army of 200,000 Seljuk Turks under the sultan Kilij Arslan I. Raymond IV comes to the aid of Bohemund of Taranto with 60,000 Crusaders and they defeat the Mohammedan army of the Seljuk Turks. Victory of the Crusaders over the Seljuk Turks. Plague and famine in Palestine and Egypt during the First Crusade. Sept.-Dec. 1097 40,000 perish. Henry IV. Returns from Italy to Germany. 1097 Edgar, the second son of Malcolm III, is King of Scotland. 1097-1107 His mother was St. Margaret of Scotland (1045-1093). The main body of Crusaders camps before the enormous stronghold of Antioch, which bars all progress south toward Jerusalem. 1097 Siege of Antioch by the Crusaders. 1097-1098 Lasts for eight months. William II, Rufus, King of England, invades Wales. 1097 St. Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, is exiled from England (until 1100) after William II rejects his claim that Church law overrides civil law. 1097 This is part of the Lay Investiture controversy. Westminster Hall. London, England. Huge royal hall. 1097-1099 Baldwin of Boulogne (c.1060-1118). Captures the city of Edessa (Urfa), the greatest defense to the city of Jerusalem on the side towards Mesopotamia. Mar. 1098 Baldwin of Boulogne makes Edessa the first Crusader state. Crusaders take Antioch. June 1098 The Crusaders under Bohemund I of Taranto (son of Robert Guiscard) defeat the Seljuk Turks and capture the great fortress at Antioch. The Crusaders finally take the city of Antioch and the surrounding territory. Bohemund I of Taranto, (son of Robert Guiscard) becomes the first ruler of the Principality of Antioch, one of the most powerful Crusader states. 1098 Antioch survives until the Mameluk conquest (1268). Bohemund I. Prince of Antioch. 1098 St. Robert of Molesmes (c.1024-1110). Founds the Cistercian Order. 1098 Founds the first Cistercian monastery at Cîteaux (Latin: Cistercium) on a wild remote site in Burgundy, France. The Cistercian Order is dedicated to a close observance of the rule of Saint Benedict of Nursia. St. Stephen Harding (d.1134) and twenty other men are with St. Robert of Molesmes. England is at war with France. 1098 The Fatimids come out of Egypt and take the city of Jerusalem from the Seljuk Turks. 1098 The Byzantine Empire and the Normans are at war in Asia Minor. 1098 Council of Bari. 1098 Pope Urban II fails an attempt to reconcile Eastern and Western churches. St. Anselm of Canterbury is present and defends the Filioque clause of the Apostolic Creed in the West-East controversy concerning the procession of the Holy Ghost. The Greek and Latin churches had previously split in 1054. Roger Guiscard leads an army against Amalfi and Capua. 1098 The Crusaders begin the long march from Antioch to the city of Jerusalem. Jan. 1099 The Crusaders are under Raymond IV of Toulouse, Robert of Normandy (the son of William the Conqueror), Godfrey of Bouillon, Robert of Flanders, and Tancred of Taranto. Bohemund stays behind to rule and protect Antioch. Baldwin of Boulogne remains at Edessa. Nicholas Prevost of Tours. “Antidotarum.” 1098 Prepares a collection of 2650 medical prescriptions from Salerno, Italy. The Christian army of 1200 knights and 11,000 foot soldiers reaches the walls of the city of Jerusalem. June 7, 1099 The Crusader army camps before the walls of Jerusalem. Jerusalem is fortified with an army of 40,000 well armed Mohammedans. In addition, there are almost 30,000 other non-military persons on the side of the Mohammedans. The Mohammedan garrison is under the command of Al-Musta’li, the Caliph of Cairo. Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders. July 15, 1099 The Crusaders, led by Godfrey of Bouillon, storm and capture the city of Jerusalem after a five week siege. By nightfall of July 15, almost 70,000 Mohammedans are dead. Godfrey of Bouillon refuses the title of king but accepts the title of Prince and “Defender of the Holy Sepulcher of Jesus Christ.” The Crusaders succeed in gaining the Holy City of Jerusalem from the Mohammedans. The Crusaders establish the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. 1099 The Crusaders will hold Jerusalem from 1099-1187 (88 years). The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem includes most of Syria. Kilidj Arslan I, the Sultan of Rum, approaches Jerusalem with a great Egyptian army of 300,000 moslems in order to capture Jerusalem. 1099 They encamp at Ashkalon. Battle of Ashkalon (Ascalon). August 19, 1099 Scarcely 20,000 Crusaders under Godfroi of Bouillon, Tancred of Taranto, and Robert of Normandy, defeat 300,000 Egyptian Mohammedans under Kilidj Arslan I at Ashkalon near the city of Jerusalem. Kilidj Arslan I, the Sultan of Egypt, retreats. The Crusaders return to Jerusalem. The Crusaders set up the state of Tripoli in Lebanon, under Raymond IV of Toulouse. 1099 Death of “El Cid” (Rodrigo Diaz of Bivar) at Cuenca. July 10, 1099 El Cid dies after having fought off two assaults on Valencia by the Almoravid Mohammedans. The Mohammedans immediately take Valencia. Rains and floods in England bring famine, disease, tempests, and “bad air”. 1099 Thousands perish. Synod at Rome renews the condemnation of Lay Investiture. 1099 Secular rulers cannot appoint bishops, etc. Pope Paschal II. 1099-1118 Gerard de Martigues (d.1120), also known as Gerard Sasso. 1099 Becomes the first Grand Master of the Order of Knights Hospitaller (1099-1118). Also known as the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. Modena Cathedral. Italy. 1099-1184 Church sculpture is begun by Wiligelmo. 12th Century Death of Godfrey of Bouillon. 1100 His brother Baldwin of Bouillon (c.1060-1118), Count of Edessa, is made Baldwin I, King of Jerusalem. Baldwin I rules 1100-1118. Battle of Melitene. 1100 Bohemond of Taranto (son of Robert Guiscard) and his men are ambushed and defeated by a moslem force. William II (Rufus), King of England, is murdered in New Forest. 1100 He is succeeded by Henry I, his brother, and the youngest son of William the Conqueror (1027-1087). Henry I obtains the crown while his older brother Robert, Duke of Normandy, is away fighting in the Crusades. Beginning of the reign of Henry I, King of England. 1100 Henry I rules from 1100 until his death in 1135. He recalls Anselm of Canterbury to England from exile on the Continent. Henry I, King of England. Issues Charter of Liberties. 1100 Church of St. Savin-sur-Gartempe, Poitou, France. 1100-1200 Painted with four cycles of paintings: apocalyptic scenes, scenes of the Passion of Jesus Christ, lives of the saints, and Old Testament events. Kelso Abbey, Scotland. 1100-1200 Finest Romanesque style church in Scotland (now ruined). Sahagún Abbey, Spain. 1100-1200 Now a ruined Cluniac Abbey. Caen Castle, France. ca.1100 Notre Dame du Port at Clermont-Ferrand, France. Auvergne school of Romanesque architecture. 1099 Paray le Monial Abbey, France. ca.1100 Byzantine mosaic artists begun work on the Cathedral of St. Mark in Venice. ca.1100 Early mural paintings in Boyana Church, Sophia. in Bulgaria. ca.1100 Manufacture of paper in Constantinople. ca.1100 Baptistry, Florence. Built. 1100 “De Diversis Artibus” by the German Monk Theophilus. ca.1100-50 Presents a treatise on monastic religious craftsmanship. Guimaraes Castle. Portugal. ca.1100 Romanesque style castle. “Ex Semine Abrahae.” c.1100 Earliest known motet, written by an unknown composer. St. Germain-des-Près. Paris, France. 1100 Painted with four cycles of paintings: scenes from the Old Testament, scenes of the Passion of Jesus Christ, scenes from the lives of the saints, and scenes from the Apocalypse (Book of Revelations). Death of Roger I (Roger Guiscard) of Sicily. 1101 He is 70 years old (c.1031-1101). Roger II comes to the throne. Roger II rules as King of Sicily 1101-1154. Death of Saint Bruno of Cologne (c.1030-1101). October 6, 1101 Robert II, Duke of Normandy, older brother of Henry I, King of England, invades England. 1101 Robert II of Normandy attempts to take the English throne. Henry I of England defeats his brother Robert, Duke of Normandy. Battle of Mersivan. 1101 (Part of the First Crusade). An entire column of men, women, and children, are wiped out by a moslem force. Treaty of Alton. 1101 Robert II, Duke of Normandy, is bought off after his invasion of England. Fontevraud Abbey. France. 1101 Romanesque style church. Battle of Ramleh (First). Sept. 7, 1101 Baldwin I of Jerusalem defeats moslem army led by the Caliph of Cairo at Ramleh, a key fortress that is located on the road from Jerusalem to the coast. Boleslav III. King of Poland. 1102-1138 Invasion of Ireland by Magnus II, King of Norway. Magnus is killed. 1103 Sigurd I Jorsalafare, the Crusader. King of Norway. 1103-1130 Rules from 1103-1122 with his brother Eystein I. Henry I. King of England. Invades Normandy. 1103-1106 Eric, King of Denmark, goes on pilgrimage to the East. 1103 Niels. King of Denmark. 1103-1134 St. Anselm (b.1033-d.1109), Archbishop of Canterbury. Opposes Henry I of England in the Lay Investiture struggle. 1103-1107 Henry I of England seeks to appoint his own bishops. Public Peace of Mainz for the Holy Roman Empire. 1103-1107 Baldwin I of Jerusalem lays siege to Acre. Acre surrenders to the Crusaders under Baldwin I. May 26, 1104 Baldwin I takes Beirut and Sidon and repulses Mohammedan counterattacks. Bohemond (d.1111), Prince of Antioch. Wages war in Epirus against the Byzantine Empire. 1104-1108 The papacy has built a powerful coalition of German nobles, led by Henry IV’s son (soon to be Henry V) against Henry IV (pro lay investiture) and his anti-pope Clement III. 1104 Church of St. Madeleine, Vézelay, France. 1104-1132 Sculpture was considered part of the Church architecture. Mohammed (aka Tapar). Sultan of the Seljuk Empire. 1104-1116 Crusader Raymond of Toulouse besieges Tripoli (now in Lebanon). Siege continues after the death of Raymond (1105). 1104 Pope Paschal II absolves Philip I, King of France. 1104 End of the conflict between Philip I, King of France and Pope Paschal II of the Catholic Church. Alfonso I. King of Aragon. 1104-1134 Angoulême Cathedral. Built. 1105 Emperor Henry IV is captured by his son Henry V (b.1081-d.1125) and abdicates. Henry IV’s son drives him to Liège, the last city in all of his dominions that is loyal to him. 1105 Flood followed by famine and plague devastates England. Number of deaths is unknown. 1105 Battle of Tinchebrai. Sept. 28, 1106 Between the English under Henry I, King of England, and the Normans under his older brother Robert II, Duke of Normandy. Robert II, Duke of Normandy, is totally defeated. Henry I conquers and annexes Normandy to the crown of England. Henry I brings Normandy back under English control again. Robert II (1056-1134) is imprisoned at Cardiff for the rest of his life. Death of Henry IV (b.1050-d.1106). 1106 Henry IV is succeeded by his son Henry V (b.1081-d.1125), Holy Roman Emperor, Emperor of Germany, and King of Italy. Henry V rules 1106-1125. Henry V will be the last emperor of the Salian (or Salic) Dynasty that began with Conrad IV in 1024. Barren lands cause more famine, plague, and disease in England. 1106 Thousands perish. Abbot Daniil. Russian. Writes a prose description of his pilgrimage to Palestine and the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem (“The Pilgrimage of Abbot Daniil”). 1106-1108 He meets Baldwin I of Jerusalem. Sigurd I Jorsalafare, “the Crusader”, King of Norway (King: 1103-1130). Sails as a Crusader (1107-1111) with sixty ships via England, Spain, and Sicily, to Palestine to help take back from the Moslems the Holy Sepulchre of Jesus Christ in Jerusalem. He fights the moslems at every opportunity. Sigurd then leads the remainder of his band to Constantinople, and then overland through the Balkans, Germany, Denmark, and then back to Norway. 1107 A compromise on Lay Investiture is reached in England. 1107 Byzantine-Norman War. 1107-1108 Death of Edgar, King of Scotland. 1107 He is succeeded by his brother Alexander I (rules 1107-1124). The Normans in Asia Minor make peace with the Byzantine Empire. 1108 Death of Philip I, King of France. He is succeeded by Louis VI as King of France. 1108 Louis VI rules 1108-1137. German Emperor Henry V (Heinrich) attacks Hungary. 1108 Beginnings of the influential abbey and school of St. Victor. 1108 Battle of Naklo. 1109 Boleslav III, Polish King, crushes the Pomeranians at Naklo. Boleslav III, King of Poland, halts German Emperor Heinrich V’s advance at the Battle of Hundsfeld. 1109 Tripoli, besieged since 1104, is finally liberated by the Crusaders. 1109 Tripoli is made an independent principality under the Count of Toulouse. Anglo-French War. 1109-1113 Louis VI, the Fat, King of France, is at war with Henry I, King of England, over Normandy. Death of Saint Anselm (1033-1109), Archbishop of Canterbury, in England. April 21, 1109 Canterbury will be vacant for five years. Pontius is Abbot of Cluny. 1109-1122 Fulk V, the Young (b.1092-d.1143). Count of Anjou. 1109-1131 Henry (Heinrich) V. German Emperor. Reestablishes supremacy of the Empire over Bohemia. 1110 Heinrich V, German Emperor, invades Italy. 1110 Nestov. Kiev monk. “The Nestov Chronicle.” c.1110 An important account of Slav and Russian history between 1040 and 1110. Death of Bohemund (Norman) of Tarantro (and Antioch). 1111 Treaty of Sutri. Feb. 4, 1111 Henry V stops his demands of dealing with Lay Investiture. Lay Investiture Conflict between Heinrich V and Pope Paschal II. Emperor Henry V seizes Pope Paschal II and throws him into prison without food and forces him to acknowledge imperial demands of the emperor, is the right of Lay Investiture. Feb.12,1111 Paschal II of course will reject these demands once he is free of Henry V. Plague follows winter famine in London, England. 1111 Thousands perish. Treachery of Alexius I Comnenus, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Sends an envoy to meet with the Caliph of Baghdad in order to convince him to attack the Crusader principality of Tancred. 1111 A group of thirty horseman led by a young noble appear at the Abbey of Cîteaux (Cistercian Order). His name is Bernard (1090-1153). 1112 Bernard brings with him his uncle, his four brothers, and 25 friends, to enter into the Cistercian Order with him. They are all received by St. Stephen Harding (d.1134). Bernard and the others enter the Abbey of Cîteaux. Bernard is only twenty two years old. Synod of Vienne. Sept. 1112 Henry V is excommunicated because of his persistence in demanding the rights of Lay Investiture. Adelard of Bath. English monastic. “Questiones naturales (“Questions on Natural Science”). c. 1112 A long dialogue covering many of the sciences. Covers topics in physics, optics, acoustics, meteorology, biology, and botany. Tancred of Taranto dies. 1112 City of Angkor Vat. Cambodia. 1112-1150 Includes colossal funerary building. Order of Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem. 1113 The Order is formed to protect the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Order is formally acknowledged by Pope Paschal II. Gerard de Martigues (also known as Gerard Sasso) has been the first Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller Order since 1099. Founding of St. Nicholas, Novgorod. 1113 Conquest of the Balearic Islands by Pisa. 1113 Reign of Vladimir II Monomach of Russia. Grand Duke of Kiev. 1113-1125 Wrote his “Testament,” his autobiography. Earthquake. Syria. 1114 Destruction of Jerusalem, Antioch, Aleppo, and many other cities by earthquake. Thousands are killed. Burning of heretics in Strassburg. 1114 Founding of Chichester Cathedral. 1114 Marriage of Emperor Henry V with Matilda, the daughter of Henry I, King of England. 1114 Ralph (Ralf) of Escures. Archbishop of Canterbury. 1114-1123 Adelard of Bath. English monastic. Translates the “Elements of Geometry” of Euclid from Arabic to Latin. c.1120 St. Norbert of Xanten (c.1080-1134). Conversion in 1113. Ordained in 1115. 1115 Florence becomes a free republic. 1115 Hugh of St. Victor (1096-1141). Goes to the monastery of St. Victor in Paris. c.1115 He will spend the rest of his life there. Stephen II. King of Hungary. 1115-1131 Peter Abélard. French logician and dialectician. Teaches at Paris, and begins his argument that the Scriptures should be subject to the scrutiny of human reason. 1115 Saint Bernard is sent with twelve monks to found one of the first Cistercian daughter houses in the Vale of Wormwood, a desolate location which he renames Clairvaux. 1115 Saint Bernard becomes the first Abbot of Clairvaux (1115-1153). Bernard inaugurates reform of the Cistercian Order. Alexius I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor. Defeats the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Philomelion in central Asia Minor. 1116 He recovers some of Anatolia. Founding of the University of Bologna in Italy. 1116 Henry I, King of England. England is at war again with Louis VI, King of France, over Normandy. 1116-1120 Heinrich V. Enters into Italy, seizes Tuscany and other lands of Matilda (d.1115) of Tuscany. 1116 Sandjar. Sultan of the Seljuk Empire. 1116-1157 Great famine. Ireland. 1116 Thousands perish. Peter of Bruys (Bruis). French heresiarch. Opposes the building of churches, rejects the Real Presence of the Eucharist, rejects the Old Testament, rejects the celibacy of the priesthood, and seeks to abolish the Mass (Petrobrusian Heresy). 1117-1131 Death of St. Bernard of Thiron (also known as Bernard of Abbeville). Benedictine Order (b.1046-d.1117). April 14, 1117 St. Michele. Pavia, Italy. c.1117-1168 Lombard Romanesque style of architecture. Terrible famine in England. 1117 Caused by incessant rain. Thousands perish. Heinrich V, German emperor, is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. March 1117 The pope, on a visit to Toulouse, calls for the liberation of the city of Saragossa, Spain from the moslems. 1118 600 French knights led by Gaston “the Crusader”, just back from Jerusalem, set out for Spain and help Alfonso I, “the Battler”, to liberate the Spanish city of Saragossa from the moslems. Battle of Saragossa. 1118 Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Alfonso I, “the Battler”, of Aragon leads the Christian forces in the re-capture of the moslem occupied state of Saragossa. St. Bernard of Clairvaux. Founds Trois Fontaines (monastery). 1118 Heinrich V, Holy Roman Emperor. Forces Pope Gelasius II to leave the city of Rome. 1118 Pope Gelasius II excommunicates Emperor Heinrich V. April 1118 Peter Abélard begins to teach at Paris. 1118 Alexius I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor, dies. 1118 John II Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor. 1118-1143 Hugues de Payens (c.1070-1136). Burgundian Knight. Receives from the king of the Latins a residence near the Temple of Solomon at Jerusalem. Founds the Crusader Order of Knights Templar (Knights of the Temple) at Jerusalem. He is the first Master of the Templar Order (1119-1136). 1118 He founds the Templar Order with nine knights. The Templar Order is founded to protect pilgrims in the Holy Land that are on the road to the city of Jerusalem. Death of Baldwin I (Baldwin of Bouillon). 1118 Baldwin II. King of Jerusalem (d.1131). 1118-1131 Pope Calixtus (Calixtinus) II. 1119-1124 Henry I, King of England. Assures England’s hold on Normandy by defeating Louis VI, King of France at the Battle of Brémule. August 20, 1119 Saint William of Vercelli (1085-1142). Founds the “Congregation of Monte Vergine.” This is a branch of the Benedictine Order of Saint Benedict. 1119 Charles the Good. Count of Flanders. 1119-1127 St. Stephen Harding (d.1134). Writes the “Charter of Love,” which is accepted as the new rule of the order, now called the Cistercian Order. 1119 Crusader-Turkish Wars. 1119-1144 Peace between Henry I, King of England, and Louis VI, King of France. 1120 The “White Ship” disaster. 1120 William, the only legitimate son of Henry I, King of England, drowns off of Harfleur in a shipwreck. Henry I is now left without an heir. Romsey Abbey, England. Begun. 1120 St. Norbert of Xanten (c.1080-1134). Founds with thirteen followers a house of regular canons. He calls the place Prémontré (Pratum Monstratum) through its indication to him by an angel. 1120 Autun Cathedral, France. 1120-1140 Burgundian church. Peter Abelard. “On the Divine Unity and Trinity.” 1120 Famine. Jerusalem. 1120 With a plague of locusts. Thousands perish. David IV, King of Georgia (rules 1089-1125). Liberates Tbilisi (Tiflis) from the moslems. 1121 Meeting of the German princes at Würzburg in order to make a compromise between the Pope and Emperor Henry V. 1121 The Anti-pope of Henry V, Gregory VIII, is finally imprisoned and put in a monastery. 1121 St. Bernard of Clairvaux. Founds monastery at Foigny. 1121 Saint Norbert of Xanten (c.1080-1134). His group increases to forty followers. The Canons Regular of Prémontré (Praemonstratensians) are formally founded. 1121 Synod of Soissons. 1121 Condemnation (first) of Abélard’s teachings on the Indivisible Trinity. Long and cruel frost brings great famine in England. 1121-1122 Thousands perish. Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus (son of Alexius I Comnenus). Recovers much of south western Asia Minor from the Seljuk Turks. 1121 Henry I, King of England (1068-1135). Leads an army into Wales in order to suppress a rebellion there. Henry I reaffirms the authority of England over Wales. 1121 Byzantine victory ends a threat of invasion by the Patzinak Turks, a nomadic Turkish people. Virtual extermination of the Patzinak Turks by the Byzantines. 1122 Synod of Worms. 1122 Synod of German bishops called at Worms to settle the Lay Investiture controversy between Heinrich V and Pope Calixtus II. The Synod formulates the Concordat of Worms (Pactum Callixtinum), between Pope Calixtus II and Henry V, concerning the Lay Investiture question (the dispute over the appointment of bishops). Lay Investiture is the appointment of bishops and other ecclesiastical officials in the Catholic Church by king and even lords instead of popes. Henry V is forced to accept a compromise measure. Confraternity of Belchite. 1122 Established in order to liberate the Aragonese city of that name from the Mohammedans. Piacenza Cathedral. 1122 Peter Abelard (1079-1142). French logician and dialectician. “Sic et non” (“Yes and No”). 1122 Emphasizes the use of reason and analysis. St. Zeno Maggiore. Verona, Italy. 1123-1138 Lombard church. Terrible weather causes famine and plague in France and Germany. Thousands perish. 1123-1024 Boleslav III of Poland has absorbed Pomerania. 1123 Founding of St. Bartholomew’s hospital, London. 1123 Ninth General Church Council. 1123 First Lateran Council. Ratifies the Concordat (Diet) of Worms (1122). Reaffirms the celibacy of the priesthood. Byzantine Emperor, John II Comnenus, defeats the Serbs. 1123 John II Comnenus. Byzantine Emperor. Defeats the Hungarians. 1124 Completion of Rochester Cathedral, England. 1124 Pope Honorius II. 1124-1130 Death of Alexander I, King of Scotland. 1124 He is succeeded by his younger brother, David I (b.1084-d.1153), as King of Scotland. David I rules 1124-1153. Saint Norbert of Xanten (b.c.1080-1134). Successfully opposes the heresy of Tranchelm of Antwerp. 1124 Louis VI, the Fat, King of France, repulses an invasion by Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor. 1124 Henry V was aiding Henry I, King of England. Otto, Bishop of Bamberg. First mission to the Pomeranians. 1124 Second mission, 1227. Begins the conversion from paganism to Christianity of the Pomeranians. Alfonso I, “the Battler”. Marches south, all the way to the moslem controlled Malaga, leading his Aragonese army and French knights, then turns around and returns to Saragossa. He takes with him over 10,000 Christian families of Andalusia back to Christendom. 1125 Saint Norbert of Xanten (b.c.1080-1134). Receives papal approval for his constitutions of the Canons Regular of Prémontré (Premonstratensians) from Pope Honorius II. 1125 St. Front, Périgueux. Built. ca.1125-1150 St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). “On the Steps of Humility and Pride.” 1125 Gislebertus. Sculptor. Sculpts the whole of Autun Cathedral in France. He is allowed to sign his work. ca.1125-1135 Death of Heinrich V, the last Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire that is of the Salian Dynasty (founded 1024). 1125 He leaves no direct heir. End of the Salian line. Lothar (Lothair) II of Saxony. Elected Holy Roman Emperor and King of Germany over rival claimants. 1125 Lothar II rules 1125-1137. Civil War between the Welfs (Lothair’s supporters) and the Waiblingers (supporters of the Hohenstaufen family which claim the throne on the basis of heredity). 1125-1135 Moissac Abbey. France. 1125-1130 Alexander Neckam. “De Utensilibus.” 1125 Provides the earliest account of the mariner’s compass. La Charité-sur-Loire Abbey. France. Built. 1125-1130 Fall of Morocco to the Almohades (moslem). 1125 Almohad Dynasty (1125-1212), founded by Ibn Tumart, comes to power in Morocco (until 1169). 1125 William of Malmesbury (c.1090-1143). English historian. “Gesta Regum Anglorum.” (“Deeds of the English Kings”). From 449-1128. 1125 Peter of Bruis (or Bruys), a French student of Peter Abelard, is burned as a heretic. c.1126 He sought to abolish the Mass. St. Norbert of Xanten (b.c.1080-1134). Returns to Germany. He is appointed Archbishop of Magdeburg by Emperor Lothair II. 1126 Alfonso VII. King of León and Castile. 1126-1157 The English barons accept Matilda, the widow of Emperor Henry V and daughter of Henry I, King of England, as the successor to Henry I. 1126 Adelard of Bath. English philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician. Translates the “Astronomical Tables” of Al-Khowarizmi (c.780-c.850) from Arabic into Latin. 1126 Raymond of Sauvetât. Becomes Archbishop of Toledo, Spain. Founds the school of translators at Toledo. 1126 Famine. England. 1126 Incessant summer rains cause great scarcity of food. Tartars establish Ch’in Dynasty in north eastern China. 1126 Chin Tartars overcome the Sung court, which flees south from Honan. 1127 William of Malmesbury (c.1090-1143). English historian. “Gesta Pontificum Anglorum”. c.1127 (‘Deeds of the English Bishops”). Begins at the year 597. Chapel of St. Cormac (d.908), chapel Cashel of Kings, Ireland. 1127-1134 Example of Romanesque style architecture in Ireland. Stephen of Antioch. Translates “Liber regalis” of Haly Abbas. 1127 This is an early encyclopedia of medicine. Imadeddin Zengi, ruler of Mosul. 1127-1146 Roger II of Sicily. Pope Honorius II invests Roger II with Apulia, Italy. Roger II becomes Duke of Apulia. Aug. 1128 David I, King of Scotland. Founds Holyrood Abbey. 1128 St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). Founds Igny Monastery (March) and Reigny Monastery (September). 1128 Beginning of the development of land reclamation and road making by Christian monks in England. 1128 Hugues de Payens (c.1070-1136). Obtains from the pope the confirmation of the original rule of his Order of Knights Templars (the Templar Order). 1128 Alfonso I Henriques, son of Henry II of Burgundy, seizes power in Portugal. 1128 Rules 1128-1185. Paris is struck by a terrible epidemic. 1129 Reputedly ended through the intercession of St. Genevieve (c.422-500). Empress Matilda, the widow of Henry V, marries Geoffrey the Handsome, Count Fulk of Anjou, called “Plantagenet.” 1129 Abbé Suger. Abbot of St. Denis. Begins construction on the abbey church of St. Denis, the first Gothic Church (with flying buttresses). 1129 Gothic architecture will spread through the Ile de France and from there throughout all of Europe. Swerker I. King of Sweden. 1129-1155 Adelard of Bath. English. Translates “Liber ysagogarum Alchorismi in artem Astronomicon” of Al-Khowarizmi from Arabic into Latin. c.1129 This work is on arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Roger II (The Great), Count of Sicily (1101-1130). Coronation of Roger as King of Sicily, Calabria, and Apulia. Sicily becomes a kingdom. 1130 Roger II rules (1130-d.1154) one of the most advanced unified kingdoms of the time. St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). Supports Innocent II in becoming pope. 1130 Pope Innocent II. 1130-1143 Death of St. Isidore the Laborer (1070-1130). May 15, 1130 Cardinal Pierleone is illegally elected anti-pope Anacletus II. 1130 Ibn Tumart. The founder of the Almohade Dynasty, dies a violent death in battle.v 1130 Stavanger Cathedral. Norway. Begun. 1130 Harold IV Magnusson. King of Norway. 1130-1136 Houdan Castle, France. 1130 New Church of Sant’Ambrogio, Milan. 1130 Rochester Castle, England. ca.1130 Notre-Dame-la-Grand at Poitier, France. ca.1130 Great famine in Rome, Italy. 1130-1031 Tintern Abbey. Cistercian monastery built in England. 1131 Ava. German author. Writes a 2500 line poem on the Last Judgement. c.1130 Bela II. King of Hungary. 1131-1141 Urgel Cathedral. Spain. 1131-1175 Catalonian church that demonstrates the influence and work of Lombard masons in Spain. Fulk the Young (Fulk of Anjou). King of Jerusalem. 1131-1143 Palermo Palatine Chapel, Sicily. 1132-1143 Combination of Norman, Byzantine, Islamic, and Egyptian styles of art. St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). Founds Rievaulx monastery in Yorkshire, England. 1132 St. Bernard sends a Cistercian colony to Spain (Moruela) in 1132. Fontains Abbey. Founded in Yorkshire, England. 1132 Gaston the Crusader, Prince of Béarn, is killed. 1131 St. Norbert of Xanten (b.c.1080-1134). Persuades Emperor Lothair II to lead an army, which he accompanies, to Rome in order to place Innocent II on the papal throne. 1132-1133 Death of St. Hugh of Grenoble (1052-1132). April 1, 1132 Lothair II is crowned emperor after invading Italy (1132-33) to support Innocent II against the rival Anti-pope. 1133 Death of Saint Norbert of Xanten (b.c.1080-1134) at Magdeburg, Saxony. June 6,1134 Death of St. Stephen Harding (Cisterian Order). 1134 The Mohammedans defeat and kill Alfonso of Navarre and Aragon at Fraga. 1134 Robert II (1056-1134) of Normandy, brother of Henry I, King of England, dies in prison after being held captive since 1106. 1134 Ramiro II, the Monk. 1134-1137 King of Navarre. Eric II, King of Denmark. Leads an expedition against Rügen. 1134 He successfully besieges the fortress of Arkona, which is the cult center of the pagan god Svantovit. After Eric II returns to Denmark, the people revert back to paganism and the worship of their pagan god. Council of Pisa is called by Pope Innocent II. May-June 1135 Excommunicates the Anti-pope Anacletus II. The “Kaiserchronik.” 1135-1150 This is the first major history of Germany. Written by the Christian monks of Regensburg. Drought followed by famine and disease throughout England. 1135-1137 Death of Henry I, King of England. 1135 Stephen of Blois, Henry’s nephew and a grandson of William the Conqueror, seizes the throne of England, ignoring the claim of Henry I’s daughter Matilda (see 1126). Stephen of Blois is the last Norman king of England. Rules 1135 until his death in 1154. Western façade of Chartres Cathedral, France. Built . 1135-1150 Gothic style architecture. St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). “Sermones super Cantica Canticorum.” Written. 1135-1138 Series of sermons on the “Song of Songs” (from the Old Testament). Church of St. Gilles-du-Gard. France. c.1135-1195 Matilda (the daughter and heiress of Henry I, King of England) asserts her right to the throne of England. 1136 Second Italian expedition of Lothar II. 1136-1137 Invasion of Southern Italy and conquest of Apulia by Lothar II, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Robert de Craon. Second Grand Master of the Templar Order. 1136-1147 Heiligenkreuz. German Cistercian monastery. 1136 Geoffrey of Monmouth (1100-1155). Wales. “Historia Regum Britanniae.” Completed. c.1136 Welsh forces defeat the English. 1136 The Welsh rise up against the Norman occupying force and drive them from Wales. Sigurd II Haraldsson, King of Norway. 1136-1155 Completion of Mainz Cathedral. 1137 Rochester Cathedral burns down. It will be rebuilt. 1137 Earthquake. Catania, Sicily. 1137 Earthquake accompanied by volcanic eruption of Mt. Etna. 12,000 perish. Death of Louis VI, King of France. 1137 He is succeeded by his son Louis VII (rules 1137-1180). Eleanor of Aquitaine marries Louis VII, King of France. Aquitaine is joined to France. 1137 Death of Lothair (Lothar) II. 1137 Conrad III, Holy Roman Emperor. 1138-1152 First King of the House of Hohenstaufen. Hohenstaufen rulers of the Holy Roman Empire will rule from 1138-1254. Death of Boleslav III, King of Poland. 1138 Divided his realm among his six sons. Ladislaus II, King of Poland from 1138-1146. A False Messiah appears in France and Persia. 1138 David I of Scotland invades England on behalf of Matilda. 1138 Battle of the Standard. Aug. 22, 1138 Stephen, King of England, defeats the Scottish King David I near Northallerton. Sung Dynasty (960-1279) capital shifts from Nanking to Hang Chau. 1138 Matilda lands in England (Arundel). Matilda (daughter and heiress of Henry I, dispossessed by her nephew Stephen of Blois) invades England. 1139 Civil war in England over the succession to Henry I will continue to 1153. Reign of Andrew Bogolubsky in Russia. 1139-1174 Pope Innocent II. Excommunicates Roger II of Sicily. 1139 Tenth General Church Council. Second Lateran Council. 1139 Ends the schism in the Catholic Church following the illegal election of the anti-pope Anacletus II as rival to Innocent II. Innocent II is pope. Repeats the requirement of the celibacy of the priesthood. Battle of Ourique. 1139 Alfonso Henriques of Portugal, son of Henry of Burgundy, defeats the Almoravid Mohammedans at the Battle of Ourique, Portugal. Crowns himself king of an independent Portugal. Rules until 1185. Portuguese Wars against Mohammedan occupation of Portugal. 1139-1492 Theobald. Archbishop of Canterbury (d.1161). 1138-1161 Fontenay Abbey, France. Cistercian Abbey. Construction. 1139-1149 All of the inhabitants of the Mohammedan city of Gansana, Peria are buried by a terrible earthquake. 1139 Bavaria falls to Austria. 1139 Roger II of Sicily. Captures Pope Innocent II. July 1139 Forces recognition of Roger’s territorial claims. Pontigny Abbey. France. 1140 Cistercian Church (later will be destroyed). Sens Cathedral. France. ca.1140 Gothic style of architecture. Christ Church Cathedral. Dublin, Ireland. ca.1140 Gratian. “Decretum.” (Concordia Discordantium Canonum). c.1140 (“Concordance of Discordant Canons”). Provides the first systematic compilation of canon law. Canon Law is the law of the Roman Catholic Church. Canon law is one of the two categories of statute law, the other is civil law. Completion of the Church of Saints Maria and Donato. Murano, Italy. 1140 St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). Begins preaching in public. 1140 Poema de Mio Cid. c.1140 Earliest surviving Spanish epic poem based on the life of El Cid. Saint Bernard of Clairvaux. Meets Peter Abelard in a debate at the Council of Sens. 1140 This is the second condemnation of the heresies of Peter Abelard (1079-1142). Aragon unites with Catalonia (the state whose center is Barcelona). 1140 This is the Spanish March of Charlemagne’s time. Vladislav II of Bohemia. 1140-1173 Battle of Lincoln. 1141 Matilda captures Stephen of Blois. Proclaimed queen at Winchester. Matilda reigns disastrously as queen of England for six months. She is finally driven out by a popular uprising. Stephen of Blois is soon restored to the throne of England. Geza II. King of Hungary. 1141-1161 Hildegarde of Bingen (1098-1179). Benedictine Order. “Scrivias.” Written. 1141-1151 St. Elizabeth of Schönau (1126-1164). Enters the Benedictine monastery of Schönau near Bingen. 1141 She is twelve years old at the time. She will live there until her death in 1164. Beginning of a decade of famine and disease in England. 1141 Thousands perish. St. Aelred (1109-1167). Becomes abbot of Revesby and Rievaulx (1147). 1142 . Death of St. William of Vercelli (1085-1142). June 25, 1142 St. Peter of Tarentaise (1102-1175). Becomes Archbishop of Tarentaise. 1142 Ordericus Vitalis (1075-1142). Norman monk in France. Writes his “Historia Ecclesiastica.” 1141 Death of Peter Abélard (1079-1142) at Cluny. 1142 He dies while he is on his way to Rome to appeal his condemnation for heresy. Castle of Krak des Chevaliers. Syria. 1142 One of several Crusader castles, built in the Near East (now destroyed). Arrival of the Cistercian Order in Sweden and Denmark. 1143 Treaty of Zamora. 1143 Alfonso Henriques is recognized by Spain, as King of Portugal (to 1185). Portugal becomes an independent Kingdom. Portugal is independent of Spain. Manuel I Comnenus. Byzantine Emperor. 1143 -1180 Presence of the first Cathars (Catharism) in western Europe is first securely attested at Cologne. 1143 Baldwin III. King of Jerusalem. 1143-1162 Consecration of the Abbey Church of Saint Denis, Paris. 1144 Construction is supervised by Abbot Suger of St. Denis. Alfonso VII of Castile. 1144 Continues the Christian reconquest of Spain from the moslems. Almohades (Mohammedan) begin to plan the destruction of the Almoravide (Mohammedan) force in North Africa. 1144 Fall of Edessa. Dec. 25, 1144 Recapture of Edessa (in Asia Minor) from the Crusaders by Mohammedans led by Imadeddin Zenkis (Turkish conqueror of Syria), the Emir of Mosul and Aleppo. The fortress was ruled by Joscelin II. The Turks kill 30,000 of the inhabitants and carry 16,000 into slavery. Louis VII, King of France, is forced to submit to the pope. 1144 Geoffrey Plantagenet (“the Handsome”), Count of Anjou. Conquers Normandy. He is made Duke of Normandy. 1144 He will later give this important territory to his son Henry of Anjou, who will be Henry of Anjou, later Henry II, King of England. Pietro Paganelli is unexpectedly elected Pope. Feb. 1145 He takes the name Eugenius III (1145-1153). St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). Asked by the papal legate to go to Languedoc in southern France in o rder to combat the Albigensian Heresy (Albigensianism). 1145 Stephen of Blois, King of England, splits his rival Matilda’s forces. 1145 The Almohade Mohammedans (a Berber dynasty) begin their invasion of Spain (until 1151). 1145 They defeat the Almoravides. The Almoravids take Tlemcen in Algeria from the Almohades. 1145 The Almoravid leader, Abd el-Mumen slaughters thousands of his enemies in an act of revenge. Emergence of the important school of medicine at Montpellier, France. 1145 Otto of Freising (1114-1158). “Chronica de duabus civitatibus”. 1145 (“Chronicle of the History of the Two Cities”). Begun 1143. First authentic mention of Prester John. 1145 He is mentioned by Otto of Freising in his “Chronica” (“Chronicle”). Robert of Chester. Translates the “Algebra” of Al-Khwarizmi from Arabic into Latin. 1145 Noyon Cathedral, France. 1145 Pope Eugenius III. Proclamation at Vezelay of the Second Crusade. 1146 Caused by the conquest of Edessa by the Mohammedans in 1144. Alphonso VII of Castile. Recaptures the city of Cordoba from the moslems. 1146 This is part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). At the request of Eugenius III, he preaches a crusade against the Turks, who had captured Edessa on Christmas Day 1144. 1146 Boleslaus IV (a son of Boleslaus III). King of Poland. 1146-1173 Assassination of Imadad-Din Zenki (the Turkish conqueror of Syria) by one of his own servants. 1146 Nureddin. Sultan of Syria. 1146-1174 The Almohads invade al-Andalus and defeat the Almoravids. 1146 Start of the Second Crusade (1147-1148). 1147 Following an appeal by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the Second Crusade is led by Louis VII, King of France and Conrad III of Germany. April 1147 140,000 French and Germans led by the Holy Roman Emperor, Conrad III and Louis VII, King of France, depart for Constantinople. Through jealousy of Western military successes, Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Comnenus treacherously causes the Crusading army to be misled through wastelands and trackless regions. 1147 Due to hunger hunger, exposure, and the sword of the Turk, a large number of the Crusaders perish. Everard des Barres. Third Grand Master of the Order of Knights Templar. 1147-1151 Battle of Dorylaeum (Second). October 1147 German crusaders under Conrad III are nearly destroyed in a surprise attack by Turkish archers at Dorylaeum. French Crusaders are nearly destroyed by the Mohammedans. 1147 Alfonso I of Portugal. Marches from Coimbra at the head of a force of Knights Templar, takes and occupies Santarem. 1147 Alfonso I of Portugal. In a spectacular attack by land and sea, he besieges and captures Lisbon from the Almoravids. 1147 Christians recapture Lisbon from the Mohammedans. Final expulsion of the Mohammedans from the city of Lisbon. This is part of the Portuguese Reconquista. This event marks the culmination of the Portuguese Reconquista of Portugal from the moslem occupiers. Lisbon is proclaimed the capital of Portugal. Founding of the Catholic Kingdom of Portugal. 1147 Lisbon Cathedral is begun. 1147 Alfonso VII of Castile. 1147 Recaptures Almería, Spain from the Mohammedans. This is part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Anselm of Havelberg, Saxon Bishop. Leads the Wendish Crusade (1147-1185). 1147 Heinrich the Lion, Saxon King, participates in the Crusade against the pagan Wends. Danish fleets and Saxon armies attack Nyklot, the Wend leader who surrenders at Dobin. The Wends are forced to release all of their Christian captives. The Christian army burns down one of their pagan temples. Founding of Moscow (first mention of Moscow). 1147 Roger II of Sicily's Norman fleets ravage parts of Byzantine Empire. 1147 Geoffrey of Monmouth (1100-1155). Wales. 1147 “Historia regum Britanniae”. (“History of the Kings of Britain”). Otto of Freising (1114-1158). “Gesta Friderici I Imperatoris”. c.1147 (“The Deeds of Emperor Frederick I”). St. Hildegarde of Bingen (1098-1179). Founds convent at Rupertsberg,near Bingen. c.1147 Second Crusade (1147-1148). Crusaders under Louis VII, King of France, and Conrad III of the Holy Roman Empire, join forces with Baldwin III of Jerusalem. 1148 The Christian army assembles at Acre and marches on Damascus. Damascus. The Moslem leader, Nurreddin of Mosul and Aleppo, marches to the relief of Damascus with a strong army of Seljuk Turks. 1148 By autumn, the large Christian force is defeated outside of Damascus and is dispersed with heavy casualties. The Crusaders fail to capture Damascus. Conrad III of Germany departs for Europe. Louis VII, King of France will leave the following year (1149). The Second Crusade (1147-1148) ends in failure with nothing accomplished. Raymond Berengar IV of Catalonia recaptures Tortosa from the moslems. Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). 1148 Council of Rheims. 1148 Condemnation and imprisonment of the Breton false Messiah that is called Eon de l'Etoile. Gilbert de Porrée recants his errors. Stephen of Blois finally drives Matilda out of England. 1148 Matilda leaves England for the last time. She withdraws to Normandy. Raymond Berengar IV of Catalonia recaptures Lerida from the moslems. Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). 1149 Normans attack Byzantine Empire. 1149 The Venetians, promised trading rights, help the Byzantines retake Corfu from Roger II of Sicily (Normans). 1149 Dedication of the rebuilt Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, Israel. 1149 Emperor Constantine’s original church was rebuilt by the Crusaders. David I, King of Scotland. Loses Northumbrian possessions to Stephen of Blois, King of England. 1149 Roche Abbey, England. ca.1150 St. Hildegarde, Abbess of Bingen (b.1098 - d.1179). “Causae et Curae”. ca.1150 A book on clinical medicine. St. TrophÎme Cathedral. Arles, France. ca.1150 St. Eric. Elected to the throne of Sweden. 1150 Eric IX, “the Saint”. King of Sweden. 1150-1160 Destruction of the Empire of Ghazni (now in Afghanistan) by Alauddin Husain, Sultan of Ghor. 1150 Husaby Church. Sweden. c.1150 Magnetic needle is known in Italy. 1150 Earliest known almanac. 1150 Pécs Cathedral. Hungary. ca.1150 Borgund Church. Norway. ca.1150 Sancho V, “the Wise”. King of Navarre. 1150-1194 Germans settle in Southern Hungary. 1150 Peter Lombard. “Sententiae”. 1150 Beginnings of the University of Paris. c.1150 Al-Idrisi, Arab geographer, begins his world map for Roger II, the Norman King of Sicily. Will be completed in 1154. 1150 Byzantines take Ancona, Italy from the Normans. 1151 Imperial castle at Nuremburg. 1151 Death of Suger, Abbot of St. Denis. 1151 End of the Toltec Empire in what is now Mexico. 1151 Death of Geoffrey of Anjou. 1151 Henry succeeds to Anjou and Touraine. End of the Toltec civilization in Mexico. 1151 Toltec capital of Tula (Tollan) in Mexico is destroyed by Chichimec invaders. Famine throughout Europe. Thousands perish. 1151-1152 Famine throughout Palestine. Thousands perish 1151-1152 Death of German Emperor Conrad (Konrad) III. 1152 Frederick I Barbarossa (Hohenstaufen), nephew of Conrad III, is elected king. Will be crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1155 (rules until 1190). Trondheim Cathedral. Norway. Begun. 1152 Anglo-Norman style of architecture. Louis VII of France annuls his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine. Mar. 1152 She had been unfaithful. Eleanor of Aquitaine marries Henry of Anjou. Mar. 1152 When Henry of Anjou becomes King of England (1154), he lays claim to Anjou, Normandy, and Aquitaine as English possessions. This leads to a long conflict between France and England over Aquitaine. Death of David I, King of Scotland. 1153 He is succeeded by Malcolm the IV, “the Maiden”, grandson of David I. Malcolm IV rules 1153-1165. Henry of Anjou invades England and forces Stephen of Blois, King of England, to make him the heir to the English throne. 1153 Famine throughout Ireland. Thousands perish. 1153 Death of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). August 20, 1153 By the time of his death, he has founded sixty five Cistercian monasteries and attracted multitudes to join the order. Pope Anastasius IV. 1153-1154 Crusader-Turkish Wars. 1153-1187 Wars of Crusaders against the Turkish Mohammedans. Death of Stephen of Blois, King of England since 1135. 1154 Stephen of Blois is the fourth and the last Norman king of England. Henry Plantagenet (b.1133-d.1189), Count of Anjou, Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine, grandson of Henry I, son of Matilda and Geoffrey Plantagenet, and husband of Eleanor of Aquitaine, is crowned. Henry II, King of England. 1154 Henry II founds the House of Anjou in England (later will be called the Plantagenet line). Henry II will rule from 1154 until his death in 1189. Period of national unity of England under Henry II. Henry II is the father of Richard I and John I. End of Norman rule of England. 1154 Marks the beginning of the Plantagenet line of English kings. By his previous inheritance of Anjou, Normandy, and Aquitaine, Henry II establishes the Angevin Empire on the Continent. Henry II also rules more than half of France. From now until 1485 the house of Plantagenet rules England. Henry is the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, and Matilda. End of the rule of Norman kings in England (1066-1154) which was begun by William the Conqueror (1066). 1154 Death of Roger II the Norman King of Sicily. 1154 William I, King of Sicily. He is the son of Roger II of Sicily. 1154-1166 Production of a map of the world at Palermo, Sicily. 1154 “Tabula Rogeriana” produced by Al-Idrisi. Includes 70 large maps. German invasions of Italy. 1154-1237 George III. King of Georgia. 1154-1184 The Christian kingdom of Georgia is at its peak. Nicholas Breakspear becomes Pope Hadrian IV. 1154 He is the only English Pope (1154-1159). Pope Hadrian (Adrian) IV is driven from Rome by Arnold of Brescia. 1154 Mohammedan Seljuk state is set up in Syria. 1154 Birth of Genghis Khan, the founder of the Mongol Empire. c.1155 Eugenius of Palermo. Translates the “Optics” of Ptolemy (originally written in Greek) from Arabic into Latin. 1154 Henry II, King of England. Appoints Thomas á Becket, the Archdeacon of Canterbury, as Chancellor of England (1155-1162). 1155 Frederick Barbarossa, seizes the Roman diadem, while his lanzknechts massacre one thousand of the Roman people. 1155 Henry II, King of England, is authorized to take possession of Ireland by papal bull (Pope Hadrian IV). 1155 Founding of the Carmelite Order on Mount Carmel in Palestine. 1155 Arnold of Brescia is hanged and burned as a heretic in Rome, during the papacy of Adrian IV, the only English pope in the history of the Church. 1155 Frederick I Barbarossa. Holy Roman Empire. June 1155 Frederick I rules 1155-1190. Al-Idrisi. Arab cartographer. 1155 “Geographia”. Published at Palermo, Sicily. The Normans take the city of Brindisi in southern Italy. May 28, 1156 Austria is formed as an independent duchy by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. 1156 Henricus Aristippus of Calabria (c.1105-1162). Translates Aristotle’s 4th book of the “Meteorologica” from the original Greek into Latin. 1156 Japan is ravaged by civil wars. 1156-1185 St. Thomas á Becket visits Paris. 1157 Snow, frost, cold, flooding, famine, and pestilence in England. 1157 Thousands perish. Haakon II Sigurdsson. King of Norway. 1157-1162 Waldemar I, the Great. King of Denmark. 1157-1182 The Seljuk Empire breaks up into a number of smaller states. 1157 Iconium or Roum (1092), Damascus, Aleppo, Kerman, and Iran. The Order of the Knights of Calatrava is founded in Spain. 1158 Formed as part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Alcobaça Abbey. Portugal. 1158-1223 Cistercian Church in the Gothic style of architecture. St. Eric (Erik), King of Sweden. Conquers Finland. 1157 Undertakes a crusade against the heathen Finns, part of whom he conquers and baptizes. Henry the Lion. Re-founds Lübeck. 1158 Alfonso VIII (b.1155-d.1214). King of Castile. 1158-1214 Frederick I Barbarossa. Makes Ladislaus (Vladislav) II, King of Bohemia. 1158 Earthquake. Syria. 1158 Massive earthquake kills over 20,000 people. Construction of Cathedral in Oxford. 1158 Frederick I Barbarossa. Second Italian campaign. Siege of Milan. 1158 Henry II. King of England. 1158-1065 Reestablishes English control of Wales. Milan revolts against Friedrich I Barbarossa, Roman Emperor. 1159 War between England and France. 1159 Alexander III. Pope. 1159-1181 Death of St. Eric (Erik), King of Sweden. May 18, 1160 Killed and beheaded in battle, when attacked by the Danish prince, Magnus Hendrickson, son of the King of Denmark. David Alrui. False Messiah. 1160 St. Hugh of Lincoln (1140-1200). Enters the Carthusian Order and is ordained. 1160 Expulsion of the Normans from North Africa. 1160 Soissons Abbey Church. Begun. 1160 Laon Cathedral, France. Begun. 1160 Large Gothic style church. Consecration of the old Salamanca Cathedral in Spain. 1160 Kilpeck Church. England. ca.1160 St. Ours at Loches. Church of Aquitaine, France. ca.1160 Jerichow Abbey. Germany. ca.1160 Romanesque style church. “Ludus de Antichristo”. Tegernsee. 1160 The Winchester Bible. England. c.1160-1170 “Jeu de Saint Nicolas” by Jean Bodel. 1160 Performed on the saint’s day at Arras. Léonin. Composer. Begins compilation of “Magnus Liber Organi”. 1160 Death of Saint Rosalia, near Palermo, Sicily. September 4, 1160 Chinese troops use explosives in battle to help crush a revolt in China. 1161 Floods. Sicily. 1161 Inundations of the sea and many rivers. 12,000 perish. Stephen III, “the Lightning”, becomes King of Hungary (1161-1162). 1161 Magnus V Erlingsson. King of Norway. 1161-1184 Church of the “Convento do Cristo” at Tomar, Portugal. Templar Church. 1162 Destruction of Milan by Frederick I Barbarossa. Mar. 1162 (Frederick the Red Beard). Arrival of a band of German Cathars (Catharism) led by a man named Gerhard in England. 1162 On the orders of an ecclesiastical Council held at Oxford, they are identified and proclaimed heretics. They are whipped, branded on the forehead, and expelled from the kingdom. Alphonso II. King of Aragon. 1162-1196 Death of Baldwin III of Jerusalem. 1162 Amalric I, his brother, rules (1162-1173) as King of Jerusalem. Poitiers Cathedral, France. c.1162-1350 Monumental Gothic style church. Henry II, King of England, makes his friend Chancellor Thomas à Becket Archbishop of Canterbury (1162-1170). 1162 Council of Tours orders the confiscation of the goods of a heretic. 1163 Discovery of silver mines at Freiburg. 1163 Beginning of dispute between Thomas à Becket and Henry II. 1163 Thomas à Becket sides with the Roman Catholic Church. Reaffirms the independence of the Church and bishops from the king. Founding of the Bishopric of Uppsala, Sweden. 1163 Beginning of the building of Notre Dame de Paris (1163-1220). 1163 Early French Gothic Cathedral. Cornerstone is laid. Constitutions of Clarendon (Henry II, King of England). 1164 Limits power of the Catholic Church in England. Stipulates that the King of England has the supreme right to decide any criminal cases involving the Catholic Church. Extends royal power over the Catholic Church in England. Thomas à Becket is exiled (to 1170) from England and goes to France. 1164 He had opposed the Constitutions of Clarendon of Henry II, King of England. La Oliva Abbey. Spain. Cistercian Church. c.1164 Spanish Gothic style of architecture. Frederick I Barbarossa. Third Italian campaign. 1164 Saladin. Participates in wars against the Fatimids in Egypt. 1164-68 Revolt and subjugation of the Abotrites by the Saxons and the Danes. 1164 Death of St. Elizabeth of Schönau (1126-1164) at Schönau. June 18, 1164 Excommunication of Emperor Friedrich I Barbarossa, for supporting a series of anti-popes. 1165 Byzantine Empire allies with Venice against the Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. 1165 Organization of the Norwegian Christian (Catholic) Church. 1165 Death of Malcolm IV, King of Scotland. 1165 He is succeeded by William the Lion (b.1165-d.1214), the younger brother of Malcolm IV. William the Lion. King of Scotland. 1165-1214 Gerard of Cremona (1114-1187). Born at Cremona,Italy. Arrives at Toledo, Spain. c.1165 During his life, Gerard made seventy one translations unaided. Among his translations are the “Posterior Analytics”, and “On the Heavens and the Earth” of Aristotle. The “Elements” and “Data” of Euclid. “On the Measurement of the Circle” of Archimedes. “The Conics” of Apollonius. “The Almagest” of Ptolemy. Eleven works of Galen. Several volumes of Greek physics, astronomy, and mathematics. “On the Syllogism” of al-Farabi. Translated fundamental studies on physics, mathematics, optics, geometry, medicine, philosophy, and dialectics. Founding of the Order of Knights of Alcantara (1166-1492). 1166 Formed as part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492) to liberate Spain from the moslem conquerors. William II (William the Good). King of Sicily. 1166-1189 Saladin builds Cairo citadel. 1166 “The Song of Canute”. 1166 English ballad written by a monk of Ely. Oxford Castle. England. 1166-1170 Amalric I, King of Jerusalem. 1167 Captures Cairo. The Franks, led by Amalric I, defeat the moslems, who are led by Nured-Din of Damascus’ right hand man, Shirkuh. Emperor Friedrich I Barbarossa. Fourth expedition into Italy. 1167 Forces Pope Alexander III to leave. Friedrich’s army is decimated by disease. Lombard League is formed by Lombard cities in Northern Italy against Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. 1167 Conquest of Ireland by the Normans. 1167-1171 Founding of Oxford University in England. 1167 Formed by English masters and scholars from the University of Paris. There may have been lectures at Oxford from as early as 1133. Invasion of Egypt by Syrian armies in order to aid the Fatimids in regaining control. 1167-1169 Arabs recapture Cairo. 1168 Storming of Kiev by the Mongol hordes. 1168 Rebuilding of Milan which had been destroyed by Frederick I Barbarossa in 1162. 1168 Valdemar I, King of Denmark. Finally conquers the island of Rügen. 1168 The idol of Svantovit is overthrown and chopped up. The pagan temple is destroyed. Earthquake. Calabria and Sicily. 1169 Cathedral and city are destroyed. The earthquake is accompanied by the eruption of Mt. Etna. Catania is destroyed with 50 other cities by the eruption of Etna. Almost 15,000 perish. Saladin (Salah-al-Din Yusuf ibn-Ayyub). Becomes commander of the Syrian army of occupation in Egypt. 1169 Saladin (Salah-al-Din Yusuf ibn-Ayyub), Syrian commander, is made vizier of Egypt (1169 to 1193) by the Fatimids. 1169 Saladin will be sultan from 1174. Saladin reigns as sultan in Egypt. 1169-1193 Ayyubid Dynasty, founded by Saladin, rules in Egypt. 1169-1250 First appearance of the heretic Waldo of Lyons. The Waldenses or Poor Men of Lyons. Waldensianism. 1170 After a long dispute, Thomas à Becket is temporarily reconciled with Henry II, King of England and returns to Canterbury from exile. 1170 Murder of Archbishop Thomas à Becket, before the high altar of Canterbury, by four Norman knights of King Henry II (after Henry’s hasty words against him). Dec. 29, 1170 Kalundborg Church. Denmark. c.1170 Built on Greek cross plan. All of Sicily is wrecked by another earthquake. 1170 Another 15,000 people are killed. Palermo Cathedral. Sicily. Founded. 1170 Friesland and Utrecht, Holland. 1170 Tremendous inundation at Utrecht. Number of deaths is unknown. People go fishing within the walls of the city. Birth of Saint Dominic (Domingo de Guzman), 1170-1221. August 8, 1170 He is born in what was then the Kingdom of Castile, Spain. Richard de Clare (“Strongbow”), Norman Baron. Invades Ireland from Wales. 1170 Death of Saint Godric at Finchdale, England. May 21, 1170 The Byzantine Empire is at war with Venice. 1170-1177 Saladin of Damascus subdues Egypt. 1170-1171 Roger of Salerno. “Practica chirurgiae”. c.1170 Alfonso I of Portugal. 1171 Fights his last battle against the Mohammedans. At age 62, he defeats them at the Battle of Santarém. This is part of the Portuguese Reconquista. Henry II. King of England. Leads a large army into Ireland. 1171 Begins period of English rule based at Dublin. Henry II formally annexes Ireland. The Jews of Blois are accused and burned for using Christian blood in their Passover. 1171 Odo de Saint-Amand (b.1110-d.Oct. 9, 1179). 8th Master of the Order of the Temple in Jerusalem (the Templar Order). 1171-Oct. 8, 1179 Salah al-din (Saladin) unites the Mohammedans for the purpose of making war against the Christians and Christianity. 1171 Pope Alexander III. Authorizes crusade against the east Baltic pagans. 1171 Tournai Cathedral. Tournai, Belgium. Completed. c.1171 Plague in Ireland. 1172 Plague hastens the departure of Henry II, King of England. Thousands perish. Henry II, King of England, does penance at Avranches. 1172 Reconciliation between Henry II, King of England, and Pope Alexander III. 1172 By 1172, much of Spain is under the control of the Almohade Mohammedan Empire that is based in North Africa. 1172 Henry the Lion, Duke of Bavaria. Goes on pilgrimage to Palestine. 1172 Richard “Coeur de Lion” (1157-1199). Becomes Duke of Aquitaine. 1172 Wace. “Roman de Rou”. 1172 A Chronicle of the Dukes of Normandy. Theodorick. German. “Guide to the Holy Land”. 1172 Rebellion against Henry II, King of England. 1173-1174 Revolt by his eldest sons Henry, Richard, and Geoffrey in his French lands. They are supported by their mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, and in league with the King of France and Scotland. Henry II, King of England crushes the revolt. Henry II incarcerates his wife (until 1189) in the tower at Salisbury. First authenticated epidemic of influenza. 1173 Peter Waldo (Valdes). 1173 Beginning of the Waldensian Heresy (Waldensianism) at Lyons, France. Béla III. King of Hungary. 1173-1196 Death of Richard of St. Victor. Scottish Augustinian. 1173 Mieszko III (a son of Boleslaus III), King of Poland. 1173-1177 Canonization of St. Thomas à Becket (1117-1170). 1174 Canterbury Cathedral in England burns down. 1174 Henry II, King of England. Does penance at Canterbury for the murder of Saint Thomas à Becket (1117-1170). July 1174 William, the Lion, King of Scotland. Attempts to regain Northumbria from the English. 1174 Henry II, King of England, ends the Scottish invasion of England. Henry II captures William and forces him to sign the Treaty of Falaise. William of Scotland swears fealty to Henry II, King of England. Emperor Friedrich I Barbarossa launches his fifth expedition to Italy. 1174 Ends in failure. Building of Monreale Cathedral, Sicily. 1174-1182 Marks the high point of the Sicilian Romanesque style of architecture. Campanile of Pisa (the Leaning Tower of Pisa) is built. 1174 Rebuilding of Canterbury Cathedral begins. 1174 Will be completed in 1209. Baldwin IV the Leper. Latin King of Jerusalem. 1174-1185 Death of Asad ad-Din Shirkuh. May 1174 Saladin conquers Syria for the moslems. 1174 Saladin is now Sultan of both Egypt and Syria. Murder of Andrei Bogolubsky, the Grand Duke of Russia. 1174 William, the Lion, King of Scotland. Does homage to Henry II, King of England. 1175 Honen. Buddhist. Founds the so-called Pure Land Sect in Japan. 1175 Beginning of the appearance of religious mystery plays in France. c.1175 Kirchlinde. German Gothic church. c.1175 St. Hugh of Lincoln (1140-1200). Becomes abbot of the first Carthusian monastery in England. 1175 It is built by Henry II, King of England, as part of his penance for the murder of Saint Thomas à Becket. Will be completed in 1200. Pestilence followed by great dearth in England. 1175 Thousands perish. Construction of London Bridge in England is begun. 1176 Will be completed in 1209. Famine with a great number of dead in Wales. Thousands perish. 1176 Venetian-Norman alliance forces the Byzantine Empire to agree to a humiliating peace with Venice. 1176 Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Turks are at war. 1176-1177 Battle of Myriocephalon (Myriokephalon). Sept. 1176 Byzantine forces under Manuel I Comnenus attempt to recapture territory that had been occupied by the Seljuk Turks. Turks under Kilij Arslan II defeat the Byzantines near the Myriocephalon fortress in Phrygia. The Seljuk Turks are now established in Anatolia (Asia Minor). Henry, the Lion, refuses to provide military support to emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, in Italy. 1176 John of Salisbury. Becomes Bishop of Chartres. 1176 Pont St. Bénézet, Avignon, France. Begun. 1177 This is the famous Pont d’Avignon. Built by Saint Benedict the Bridge Builder (d.1184). Will be completed in 1184. Battle of Montgisard. Nov. 25, 1177 Baldwin IV of Jerusalem defeats the Moslems led by Saladin. Montgisard is only 45 miles northwest of Jerusalem. Battle of Legnano. May 29, 1176 Defeat of the German emperor Frederick I Barbarossa at Legnano, Italy by the Lombard League (Lombards, Romans, and Venetians). Frederick Barbarossa I is forced to flee from Italy in disguise. Civil War in Norway begins. 1177 Treaty of Ivry. 1177 Between Henry II, King of England, and Louis VII, King of France. Chrétien de Troyes. French. Writes “Lancelot”. 1177 Casimir II (a son of Boleslaus III). King of Poland. 1177-1194 Fossanova Abbey, Italy. A Cistercian monastery (still in use). 1179-1208 Peace of Venice. July 1177 Between emperor Frederick I Barbarossa (c.1123-1190) and Pope Alexander III (Lombard cities). Beginning of Ripon Cathedral. England. 1179 Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa is crowned King of Burgundy. 1178 Saladin besieges Tyre. 1179 Beginning of Wells Cathedral. England. c.1180 Gothic style architecture. Completed in 1240. Third Lateran Council (Pope Alexander III). 1179 (Eleventh General Church Council). Proclamation of crusade against the Albigenses (Albigensianism) in southern France. College of Cardinals is empowered to elect popes. Rules are enacted for the promotion of education throughout Christendom. Pope Alexander III. Recognizes Portugal as an independent kingdom. 1179 Death of Saint Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179). September 17, 1179 Truce between Baldwin IV, the Leper of Jerusalem and Saladin. 1180 Death of Louis VII, King of France. 1180 Beginning of the reign of his son Philip II “Augustus”. Philip II rules France from 1180 until his death in 1223. Frederick I Barbarossa attacks and defeats the forces of Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony. 1180 Frederick I seizes Saxony. Fall of Henry the Lion. Partition of Saxony and Bavaria. Abbey Church of the Cistercian monastery of Poblet,Catalonia. c.1180-1196 St. David’s Cathedral. Wales. c.1180 Perotinus Perotin. Composer. Succeeds Léonin at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. 1180 Completely revises Léonin's “Magnus Liber Organi”. Arrival of Saint Meinhard (d.1196) at the mouth of the Dvina River in the Gulf of Riga. c.1180 Death of Manuel I Comnenus. 1180 Alexius II Comnenus (son of Manuel I). Byzantine Emperor. 1180-1183 Chrétien (Chrestien) de Troyes. “Conte del graal”. c.1180 Gempei War. 1180-1185 Civil War leading to the downfall of the Taira clan and the rise of the Minamoto clan as the ruling family in Japan. Henry II, King of England. Issues the Assize of Arms ordering citizenry to procure weapons. 1181 Lucius III. Pope. 1181-1185 Birth of the future Saint Francis of Assisi (1181/2-1226). 1181/82 (birthname: Giovanni Francesco Bernadone). Born at Assisi in Umbria. During the reign of Alexis II Comnenus, there is a struggle for power between the people of Constantinople and the regent, the French born Empress Mary of Antioch. May 2, 1182 The party of the French regent is defeated. Massacre of the Latins (Catholics). 1182 Andronikos Comnenus, a first cousin of the recently deceased Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Comnenus, takes advantage of the disorders in Constantinople to aim at the crown. Andronikos Comnenus marches to Constantinople with an army, enters the city, and overthrows the government. His arrival at Constantinople is celebrated by the massacre of the entire Latin population. The Venetians are murdered. Over 80,000 Latins are murdered. They murder the papal legate. They destroy all of the Catholic churches. At this time, there was a non-aggression pact that stood between the Byzantine Empire and the moslems under Saladin. Twenty four years later (1204) the Crusaders will strike back and take control of Constantinople. Frederick I Barbarossa exiles Henry the Lion, to England. 1182 Expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip II, King of France. 1182 They will return in 1189. Canute VI. King of Denmark. 1182-1202 Fall of Aleppo (Syria) to the Egyptian ruler Saladin. 1183 Famine in England. Thousands perish. 1183 Famine in Wales. Thousands perish. 1183 Peace of Constance. June 1183 Lombard cities are virtually freed from imperial rule. Re-establishes independence of the Italian republics. Murder of the Byzantine Emperor Alexius II Comnenus. Oct. 1183 He is succeeded by Andronicus I Comnenus (rules 1183-1185). Saint Dominic of Calaruega (1170-1221). Studies at the University of Palencia. 1184-1194 Pope Lucius III. Council of Verona. 1184 Prosecution of heretics is formalized. Orders every Bishop to conduct an inquisition in his own diocese. Papal Bull “Ad-abolendam”. 1184 Excommunicates Waldensians (Waldensianism), Albigensians (Albigensianism), Cathars (Catharism) and other heretics. Consecration of Modena Cathedral. Construction was begun in 1099. 1184 Abu Yusuf Ya’qub (known as El-Mansur). El-Mansur becomes ruler of the Almohads. 1184-1199 Rules mainly from Marrakech. Friedrich I Barbarossa. German emperor. Sixth expedition to Italy. Rebuilds Imperial influence. 1184 Diet of Mainz. 1184 Emperor Frederick I’s power is at its height. 1184 Cyprus frees itself from the Byzantine Empire. 1184 Tamar. Queen of Georgia. 1184-1212 Sverre Sigurdsson. King of Norway. 1184-1202 Lincoln Cathedral, England. Built. 1185-1200 Gothic Cathedral. Conquest of Salonica (Thessalonika) by the Normans from Sicily. 1185 William II of Sicily had unsuccessfully attempted to conquer the Byzantine Empire. A branch of the Order of the Knights Templars is established in London. 1185 Death of Alfonso I, King of Portugal. Sancho I, King of Portugal. Rules 1185-1211. 1185 Baldwin IV, the Leper, King of Jerusalem dies. 1185 Baldwin V. Latin King of Jerusalem 1185-1186 Pomeranian Slavs submit to Canute VI, King of Denmark. 1185 During his absence from Constantinople, Andronicos I Comnenus, is deposed. Isaac Angelus is proclaimed Byzantine Emperor. 1185 Isaac hands Andronicos over to the people of the city. For three days he is tortured and finally killed on Sept. 12, 1185. Isaac II Angelus. Byzantine Emperor. 1185-1195 Henry VI, son of Frederick I Barbarossa, and heir apparent of the Normans in Sicily, marries Constance, last heiress of Sicily. 1186 Guy of Lusignan. Latin King of Jerusalem. 1186-1187 St. Hugh of Lincoln (1140-1200). Named Bishop of the see of Lincoln at the insistence of Henry II, King of England. 1186 Saladin proclaims war of Islam against Christianity. 1186 Saladin of Egypt secures Mesopotamia. 1186 The brothers Ivan and Peter Asen, Bulgarians, revolt against the Byzantine Empire. 1186 Bulgaria had been under Byzantine rule 1018-1185. Brothers Ivan and Peter Asen form independent Bulgaria north of the Balkan Mountains. 1186 Marks the independence of Bulgaria from the Byzantine Empire. Founding of the Second Bulgarian Empire. Second Bulgarian Empire will last from 1186 until 1396. Asen Dynasty in Bulgaria. 1186-1280 Peter Asen II. Czar (Coregent) of Bulgaria. 1186-1197 John Asen I. King of Bulgaria. 1186-1196 Svend Agesson (1130-1200). Completion of “Historium Regum Daniae”. ca.1186 This is the first history of Denmark. Ends at the year 1185. Evora Cathedral. Portugal. Begun. 1186 Kamakura Era (1186-1333) begins in Japan. 1186 Japan is under the domination of the Minamoto family, establishing rule of military warriors. China and Korea are successfully raided. Saladin, the Sultan of Syria and Egypt, begins a campaign designed to capture the Holy City of Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulchre. 1187 Battle of the Horns of Hattin. July 4, 1187 Saladin defeats the army of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Saladin defeats the Christian army in the Battle of Hattin (near Tiberias, Palestine). The Christian survivors are first tortured and then killed by the moslems. The rest are sold into slavery. Completion of Verona Cathedral (begun 1139). 1187 Fall of Jerusalem. Oct. 4, 1187 Saladin, the Mohammedan Sultan of Syria and Egypt, recaptures the city of Jerusalem from the Roman Catholics in his campaign to drive them from the Holy Land. All of the holy places are desecrated by the Mohammedans. Marks the end of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Moslem leader Mohammed of Ghur (Ghor) in northwestern Afghanistan conquers the Punjab, India. 1187 Conspiracy of Henry II’s sons Richard and John with Philip II Augustus, King of France. 1189 Philippe II Augustus, King of France, and Richard of Normandy defeat Henry II, King of England at Angers, France. 1189 Death of Henry II, King of England (b.1133-d.1189). Henry II ruled 1154-1189. 1189 Henry II is succeeded by his surviving oldest son Richard "Coeur de Lion" (b.1157-d.1199) who becomes Richard I, King of England. Richard I will rule England from 1189 until his death in 1199. Beginning of the Third Crusade (1189-1192). 1189 Embarkation of Frederick I Barbarossa of Germany for the Holy Land. Crusade is led by Frederick I Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor. Caused by the capture of the city of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1187. Beginning of the Siege of Acre (1189-1191). 1189 This is probably the most desperate and longest siege ever held in Asia. Acre, a powerful fortress built on a peninsula, defied capture. There are 600,000 Mohammedans engaged in the protection of Acre. Silver florin coined at Florence, Italy. 1189 Richard I the Lion Hearted, King of England, renounces the provisions of the Treaty of Falaise (1174) in return for a sum of money. 1189 Richard I acknowledges the independence of Scotland. Monastery of San Giovanni in Fiore, Calabria, Southern Italy. Founded. Home of Abbot Joachim of Fiore. 1189 Maimonides. Jewish philosopher. "Guide for the Perplexed ". 1190 Attempts the reconciliation of Aristotelianism with Judaism. Influences Judaism and Jewish philosophy for hundreds of years. Rise of the Jewish Cabalistic philosophy (Jewish magic) in Southern Europe. c.1190 Anti-Jewish movements throughout England. 1190-1191 Frederick I Barbarossa captures Iconium. 1190 After he captures Iconium during the Third Crusade, Frederick Barbarossa drowns in the River Saleph in Cilicia in Asia Minor while he is on his way to Palestine. June 10, 1190 Richard I, the Lionhearted, King of England, and Philip II Augustus, King of France, set sail from Sicily to join the Third Crusade. July 1190 Frederick I Barbarossa is succeeded by his son Heinrich VI (b.1165-d.1197) who is then regent of Germany. 1190 Henry VI will be crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1191. Henry VI will rule 1190-1197. Tancred, Norman King of Sicily. 1190-1194 Richard, Coeur de Lion, storms the city of Messina, Sicily. Oct. 1190 Roskilde Cathedral is rebuilt in Denmark. 1190 Founding of the Order of German Hospitalers. 1190 The name will be changed in 1198 to the Order of the Teutonic Knights. This is a Catholic military order that was founded during the siege of Acre by the German Knights who accompanied Frederick I Barbarossa (Third Crusade). Temujin consolidates Mongol tribes in Central Asia. 1190 Begins to form an empire in eastern Asia. Church of the Holy Apostles in Cologne, Germany. 1190 Construction begins. Heinrich VI (son of Friedrich I Barbarossa) and Heinrich, the Lion, of Saxony are at war. 1190-1195 Alexander Neckham. c.1190 “De naturis rerum” (“On Natural Things”). Contains an early reference to the magnetic compass. Heinrich VI is crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. 1191 Heinrich VI rules 1191-1197. The Byzantines have driven the Normans from the Balkans. 1191 Pope Celestine III. 1191-1198 Ivo of Chartres (c.1040-1116). Elected Bishop of Chartres. 1191 Richard I, the Lionhearted, King of England. Conquers Cyprus and sells it to the Templar Order. April 1191 End of the Siege of Acre. July 1191 After Richard the Lionhearted arrives at Acre, the Crusaders take the city of Acre (now Akko, Israel) during the Third Crusade, after a long siege (1189-1191). Battle of Arsouf (Arsuf). September 7, 1191 Part of the Third Crusade. Richard the Lionhearted defeats the moslem armies. Saladin attacks Jaffa. Richard, the Lionhearted, rushes with a smaller force and recaptures Jaffa. 1192 Richard I, the Lionhearted, King of England, makes peace (Treaty of Jaffa) for 3 years and eight months with Saladin of Egypt. Sept. 1192 Richard secures Palestinian ports and access to Jerusalem. Pilgrimages to Jerusalem by Christians are allowed once again. Jerusalem remains in the hands of the moslems. Close of the Third Crusade (1189-1192). Departure of Richard, the Lionhearted, from the Holy Land. Oct. 1192 As he is returning home, Richard is shipwrecked in the Adriatic Sea. As he is passing through Austria, Richard I the Lionhearted, is captured on his way home from the Crusades by his enemy Leopold, Duke of Austria. Dec.1192 Alfonso VIII (b.1155-d.1214) sends a message to el-Mansur (Almohad) challenging him to do battle. 1192 Rebuilding of Bamberg Cathedral is begun in 1192 (to 1237). 1192-1237 Emperor appoints Minamoto Yoritomo as the first Shogun of Japan. 1192 Shogun were the leaders who were the effective rulers of Japan from 1192 until 1867. Shogun was a title of the military commander. The emperors will not regain power until the Meiji Restoration (1868). Bourges Cathedral. France. 1192-1390 Gothic style of architecture. Death of Saladin. 1193 At his death, Saladin divides his dominions among his heirs. Richard the Lionhearted is handed over by Leopold, Duke of Austria, to Emperor Heinrich VI of Germany. Feb. 1193 Heinrich VI imprisons Richard I at Trifels and holds him for ransom. Philip Augustus, King of France, and Richard's own brother John attempt to arrange for Richard to be kept in prison indefinitely. Philip II Augustus, King of France, attacks Normandy. 1193 Mohammed of Ghur, ruler in northwestern Afghanistan, defeats Prithvi Raj and captures Delhi, India. 1193 Founds the Delhi Sultanate, the first of several Moslem empires in India. Lasts until 1398. Richard I, the Lion Hearted, King of England, is forced to accept suzerainty of the Holy Roman Empire over England. 1194 Enrico Dandolo. Doge of Venice. 1193-1205 Hubert Walter. Archbishop of Canterbury. 1193-1205 Incessant rains in England and in France cause famine and pestilence of acute fever. 1193-1196 Thousands perish. Richard I, the Lionhearted, is ransomed by England from Heinrich VI of Germany. 1194 He is released after more than a year's imprisonment and returned. Richard I returns to England. Richard I, the Lionhearted, King of England, begins war (1194-1196) against Philippe II, King of France. 1194 English-French Wars. 1194-1214 Richard I, the Lionhearted, of England defeats Philip II, King of France at Fréteval. July 1194 Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury. 1194-1198 Was the effective ruler of England during the absence of King Richard I. Birth of the future Emperor Frederick II, later called “Stupor Mundi”. 1194 Chartres Cathedral in France is rebuilt (1194-1260). 1194 Gothic style of architecture. Death of Tancred, Norman King of Sicily. 1194 Heinrich VI of Germany establishes his claim to Sicily after the death of Tancred, its king. He conquers Sicily and Southern Italy and is crowned King of Sicily. 1194 Alfonso II in Aragon decrees that all moslems and heretics should be expelled from his Kingdom. 1194 Sancho VI, the Strong. King of Navarre. 1194-1234 Raymond VI. Count of Toulouse. c.1194-1222 Tolerates Albigensianism (Albigensian heresy). Mieszko III (a son of Boleslaus III). King of Poland. 1194-1202 The Yellow River in China drastically alters its course from north to south of the Shantung Peninsula. 1194 Byzantine Emperor Isaac Angelus is deposed and blinded by his brother Alexius who succeeds him as Alexius III (rules 1195-1203). 1195 Battle of Alarcos. July 1195 The Almohades (Mohammedans) defeat the Christians under Alfonso VIII of Castile and Leon. They take control of Alarcos. Llywelyn Fawr. King of Wales. 1195-1240 Birth of the future Saint Anthony of Padua (Fernando de Bulhões) in Lisbon, Portugal. Aug. 15, 1195 Death of St. Berthold. 1195 St. Berthold founded the Carmelite Order in 1185 in Palestine. Château Gaillard, Les Andelys on the Seine in France. 1196-1199 Built by Richard I, the Lionhearted of England as a Seine outpost against the French. Peter II. King of Aragon. 1196-1213 Emeric I. King of Hungary. 1196-1204 Death of Saint Meinhard. 1196 After eliminating all of his opponents, the tribal chief Temujin (“Blacksmith,” 1167-1227) is elevated to the position of Genghis Khan and proclaimed “supreme ruler” of the Mongols. 1196 St. Dominic (1170-1221) enters a religious community. 1196 Mohammed of Ghor conquers Gwalior and Gujarat. 1196 Building of the Parma Baptistery, Italy. 1196-1296 Detached from the Church. Swerker II (“the Younger”). King of Norway. 1197-1208 Crosier War (1197-c.1202). 1197 As a result of asserting the supremacy of the monarchy over the Church, Sverre, the King of Norway, causes the Crosier War against bishops and the Church. Premature death of Henry VI (b.1165-1197). Sept. 1197 Followed by Civil War in Germany. Peter II, of Aragon, the successor of Alphonso II of Aragon, orders that convicted heretics should be burnt. 1197 Mohammed of Ghor conquers Anhilwara. 1197 Kaloyen (brother of Peter and John Asen). King of Bulgaria. 1197-1207 St. John of Matha (1160-1213) and St. Felix of Valois (1127-1212) set out for Rome where they gain approval (1198) from Pope Innocent III for the “Order of the Most Holy Trinity”. 1197 St. John of Matha is superior. Philip of Swabia. King of the Germans. 1197-1208 Of the House of Hohenstaufen. Ottokar I. King of Bohemia. 1197-1230 Innocent III is unanimously chosen Pope. Jan. 1198 Pope from 1198-1216. Frederick II, son of Henry VI, age four, King of Sicily, becomes his ward. Frederick II (b.1194-1250), son of Henry VI, becomes King of Sicily. He is under the guardianship of Pope Innocent III. May 1198 Frederick II rules 1198-1250. Fulco of Neuilly (d.1201). 1198 Roman Catholic priest, begins teaching and preaching at the Ile-de-France. Renewal of war between Richard I, the Lionhearted, King of England, and Philippe Augustus, King of France. 1198 Averroës (1126-1198) dies in Morocco, an exile from his native Spain. 1198 Emphasized the Aristotelian doctrine that the world (universe) has always existed and was therefore not created. Averroës also denied the immortality of the soul. Averroës was later referred to by Petrarch as a “mad dog, ever raging against the Christian faith." Ottokar I wins autonomy of Bohemia from Philip of Swabia. 1198 Innocent III begins preparations for the Fourth Crusade. 1198 Will be launched in 1202. Innocent III authorizes the Livonian Crusade. 1198 Objective is the conversion of the Livonians from paganism to Christianity. Leopold VI, the Glorious. Duke of Austria. 1198-1230 William of Newburgh. “Historia rerum Anglicarum.” 1198 Eruption of Vesuvius. 1198 Eruption is so great that it activates the crater of Sofatara Lake. Novgorodians raid Finland and burn Åbo (Turku) Cathedral. 1198 Richard I, the Lionhearted, King of England is killed in battle by an arrow during a siege in France. Richard I is succeeded by John Lackland, younger brother of Richard I, and the youngest son of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. 1199 Reign of John, King of England. 1199-1216 Innocent III. "Vergentis in senium". Papal Bull. 1199 Specifies the penalty for heresy. No death penalty however. Cistercians are sent as inquisitors to Metz. 1199 Declaration of Speyer. 1199 German princes confirm the right to elect a king. Siena Cathedral. Italy. Begun (to 1348). 1199 Consecration of Chichester Cathedral. England. 1199 North India is under Mohammedan rule. 1199 The Nile River fails to rise in Egypt. 1199-1204 Causes severe famine, disease, and cannibalism in Egypt. 100,000 perish. 13th Century John, King of England, recovers Anjou and Maine. 1200 Peace of Le Goulet. May 1200 Between John, King of England, and Philip II, King of France. Lucera Castle, Italy. Built. 1200-1300 One of the strongest of Frederick II’s Italian castles. The Aztecs are established in Mexico, the Incas in Peru. c.1200 Chan Chan, Peru, the capital of the Chimu Empire is built. c.1200-1300 Marienburg Castle, Poland. c.1200-1300 Built by the Teutonic Knights. Will become their headquarters in 1309. Designed along monastic lines. Llywelyn of Wales seizes Anglesey. 1200 Leopold VI, Duke of Austria. Builds the Burg (castle) in Vienna. 1200 Severe cold in Ireland causes one year of starvation. 1200 Thousands perish. India. Mohammedanism begins to replace Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and other Indian religions. c.1200 “Carmina Burana”. 1200 German collection of Latin monastic songs. Anders Sunesen (1167-1228). “Hexaèmeron”. Epic poem about the Creation, written in Latin. c.1200 Building of Turku Cathedral. Finland. c.1200-1215 First appearance of tempera painting. Italy. c.1200 Pope Innocent III. Orders Philip II Augustus, King of France, to recall his lawful wife. Places France under papal interdict. 1200 Albert, Bishop of Livonia. Establishes the see of Riga and the Order of Sword Brothers. 1200 Death of St. Hugh of Lincoln (1140-1200). Nov. 16, 1200 Albert, Bishop of Livonia, founds the city of Riga. 1201 Albert, Bishop of Livonia, brings Livonia under German rule. 1201 Crusaders establish a base in Riga on the eastern Baltic Sea. 1201 The purpose of the Northern Crusade is the conversion from paganism to Christianity of the tribes on the eastern shores of the Baltics. This is one of the last remaining strongholds of paganism in Europe. Paganism will return to this area in the Twentieth Century. Crusader leaders make arrangements with Enrico Dandolo, the 90 year old Doge of Venice, for transportation to the Holy Land the following year. March 1201 Byzantine Empire and Bulgarians make peace. 1201 Façade of Notre Dame. Paris. 1201 Pass of St. Gotthard, Switzerland, opened. 1201 Outbreak of war between John, King of England, and Philip II Augustus, King of France. 1202 Anglo-French War. 1202-1206 Northern France is recovered by Philip II Augustus, King of France from John, King of England. In 1204, Philip II of France will capture Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Brittany, and Touraine from the English. Fourth Crusade. 1202-1204 The Fourth Crusade is launched by Venice against Constantinople. The Fourth Crusade is under their leader Boniface III of Montferrat. A large army is assembled at Venice. 1202 The Fourth Crusade was originally sent by Innocent III to recover the city of Jerusalem and to relieve the Christian forces in the Holy Land. The Crusaders take passage with Venetian shipowners, who persuade them to champion the cause of a pretender on the Byzantine throne. They begin by taking the port of Venice's enemy Zara (Nov. 1202). The furious Pope Innocent III excommunicates the Crusaders and attempts to call them back. Enrico Dandolo, the blind Venetian Doge, takes the lead against Constantinople (Byzantine Empire). The Crusaders proceed to Constantinople. The Venetians and displaced Byzantines divert the Fourth Crusade away from the Holy Land into an attack on the Byzantine emperor. When Pope Innocent III hears of the attack on Zara, he condemns the action of both the Venetians and the Crusaders. Bishop Albert of Buxtehude. Founding of the German Order of Livonian (Latvian) Knights (Brethren of the Sword). 1202 This is a Christian military order whose purpose was to defend the Christian presence in Livonia from pagan attacks. Waldemar (Valdemar) II, the Conqueror. King of Denmark. 1202-1241 Francis of Assisi (1181-1226). The young Francis takes part in a war between the cities of Assisi and Perugia in Italy. 1202 Leonardo of Pisa, also called Fibonacci, “son of Bonaccio” (1175-1250). “Liber Abaci” (“The Book of the Abacus”). Published. 1202 Mathematical treatise on Arithmetic and Algebra. Introduces Fibonacci Numbers. Includes the invention of double entry bookkeeping. Venerabilum. 1202 Decretal re-asserts the authority of the papacy over the Holy Roman Empire. The Crusaders sail to Constantinople (June). 1203 They unseat the Byzantine emperor, Alexius III Angelus, and restore the deposed (and blinded) Isaac II Angelus and his son Alexius IV Angelus to the Byzantine throne. The Venetians demand tribute. Alexius IV Angelus rules 1203-1204. Saint Dominic (1170-1221). Preaches in Languedoc, against the Albigensian Heresy and helps to reform the Cistercian Order. 1203 Completion of the subjugation of the Hindus of Northern India by the moslems led by Mohammed of Ghor. 1203 John, King of England (b.1116-d.1216). Orders the murder of his nephew Arthur, Duke of Brittany. 1203 Lerida Cathedral. Spain. ca.1203-1278 Founding of Siena University in Italy. 1203 Genghis Khan defeats Ongkhan, his rival. 1203 Incessant rains cause famine in England. 1203 Thousands perish. Severe famine. Ireland. Thousands perish. 1203 Wolfram von Eschenbach. German poet. Writes the epic “Parzival”. 1203 Philip II Augustus, King of France, expels the English from Normandy. England loses Normandy (1204) to France. 1204 People of Constantinople revolt against the Crusaders. Jan. 25, 1204 They proclaim Alexius V Emperor. Alexius IV Angelus is killed. His father Isaac II Angelus is killed a few days later. The new Byzantine emperor demands that the Crusaders leave the city. Conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders. April 12, 1204 Having set off to attack Arab Egypt, French Knights divert to attack the Byzantine Empire. Instead of campaigning in the Holy Land, the Crusaders disobey Pope Innocent III and instead conquer the city of Constantinople. Crusaders establish the Latin Kingdom of Constantinople. 1204 Baldwin I (IX of Flanders) is crowned the first Latin emperor of Constantinople (to 1205). Catholics replace Byzantine Greeks on the throne of the Byzantine Empire. Latin Kingdom of Constantinople. 1204-1261 Byzantine artists flee to Venice, Italy. 1204 Michael Angelus Comnenus. Sets up the independent Greek Kingdom of Epirus. 1204 Condemnation of the Fourth Crusade by Pope Innocent III. 1204 St. Dominic (1170-1221). First encounter with the Cathari (Albigensians) of Denmark during a diplomatic mission to that country. 1204 Last public disputation between Christians and Cathars (Albigensianism) at Carcasonne. 1204 Plague sweeps through Ireland. Thousands perish. 1204 Lucca Cathedral. Italy. c.1204 Pope Innocent III. Organizes the hospital of Santo Spirito at Rome. 1204 Founding of Vicenza University, Italy. 1204 Death of Maimonides (1135-1204). Jewish philosopher. 1204 Philip II Augustus, King of France is crowned at Aix-La-Chapelle. Jan. 1205 Battle of Adrianople (Edirne). April 15, 1205 Baldwin I, Emperor of Constantinople, is defeated by Kaloyan (Yoannitsa), the third Asian ruler of the Bulgarian Empire. Kaloyan had refused to acknowledge the supremacy of Baldwin I. Henry (brother of Baldwin I). Latin Emperor of Constantinople. 1205-1216 The Latins appoint the Venetian, Thomas Morosini, patriarch. 1205 Battle of Koundoura. 1205 William of Champlitte and Geoffrey of Villehardouin with 600 men defeat a Byzantine force of over 5000 men. The barons in England refuse to fight for the recovery of Normandy from the French. 1205 Andrew II. King of Hungary. 1205-1235 Hugh of Lusignan. King of Cyprus. 1205-1218 Subjugation of the Hsi-Hsia Kingdom by the Mongols. 1205-1209 Serves as a basis for an attack on the rest of China. Birth of Nicola Pisano (c.1205-1278). Italian sculptor and architect. c.1205 Oldest Christian reference to the magnetic compass. 1205 Oldest Moslem reference will be in 1282. Pietro Ziani. Doge of Venice. 1205-1229 Cathedral of Leon. Built. 1205-1303 Genghis Khan founds the Mongol Empire. 1206 Temujin, Mongol chief, unites Mongol tribes under him. Proclaimed Genghis Khan, (“Emperor within the Seas”), Emperor of the Mongols, at Karakorum. Genghis Khan founds his Universal Mongol Kingdom (the Mongol Empire). Reigns 1206-1227. The Mongol military commands secure domestic peace. 1206 The Mongols stand ready for the planned conquest of the known world. St. Dominic (1170-1221). Goes on a mission against the Albigensian (French) heretics. 1206-1207 St. Dominic establishes a convent at Prouille, France with the approval of Bishop Fouques of Toulouse. 1206 Valdemar (Waldemar II), the Conqueror, King of Denmark. Crusades in the eastern Baltic. 1206 In the Anglo-French War, Philippe II Augustus, King of France, secures his conquest of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, and most of the English possessions that were in France from John, King of England. 1206 Theodore I Lascaris founds the Empire of Nicea, to the southeast of Constantinople (Lascaris Dynasty). Lasts until 1261. Theodore Lascaris rules 1206-1222. 1206 Emergence of Delhi as the Mohammedan capital of India. 1206 Start of the Delhi Sultanate, the first Mohammedan kingdom in India. This dynasty will end in 1398. Moslem rule in India will, however, continue until 1526. Battle of Wassenberg. July 27, 1206 Philippe II Augustus, King of France, defeats Otto IV of Saxony at Wassenberg. Pope Innocent III appoints Stephen Langton (c.1150-1228) to be Archbishop of Canterbury (1207-1228) in England. 1207 John, King of England, refuses to let him take the position. Geoffrey de Villehardouin. c.1207 “La Conquête de Constantinople”. First French vernacular history. Provides an accurate account of the events of 1198-1207. Amalric of Bène dies. 1207 The Amalricians are named after him. Amalric of Bène argued that God (the Creator) and the Creation are one (Pantheism). Amalrician Heresy is widespread. Order of the “Brothers of the Knighthood of Christ of Livonia against the Prussians” (also called “the Knights of Dobrin”). 1207 Founded by the Cistercian bishop, Christian of Prussia (the first Bishop of Prussia). Raymond VI of Toulouse refuses to restore to Christian use the churches that he had seized for use of the Albigensians (Albigensian heresy). 1207 Pope Innocent III excommunicates Raymond VI of Toulouse. Death of Kaloyan of Bulgaria. 1207 He is succeeded by his nephew Boril. Battle of Philippopolis (Plovdiv). 1208 Henry of Flanders, the new Latin Emperor of Constantinople, defeats the Bulgarians under Boril, the nephew of Kaloyan (now deceased). Pope Innocent III. Places England under papal Interdict because of King John's rejection of Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury. 1208 John of England’s subjects are released from their oath of allegiance to the King of England. The Albigensian heretics murder the papal legate Peter of Castelan, who had pronounced the excommunication of Raymond VI of Toulouse. Raymond VI, the count of Toulouse, is the major defender of the Cathari (Albigensians). 1208 This murder leads Innocent III to launch the Albigensian Crusade. Innocent III adjures Philip Augustus, King of France, to march against the heretics. Philip Augustus of France supports Pope Innocent III. First recorded appearance of the word ”universitas” (meaning “the corporation”). 1208 Found in a letter written by Pope Innocent III. Beginning of the Albigensian Crusade (1208-1213). 1208 Innocent III calls for a crusade, within Christendom itself, against the Albigensians, a heretical sect in France. The Crusade is led by Simon IV of Montfort, the Earl of Leicester. The Albigensian Crusade will last from 1208-1213. Among their many doctrines, the Albigensians teach that there was no need of discipline, because there is no heaven or hell. They reject the Old Testament, the New Testament, the Indivisible Trinity, and the existence of Heaven and hell. Philip of Swabia is murdered by Otto of Wittelsbach. 1208 Consecration of the Church of Fossanova Abbey, near Piperno. 1208 Otto IV of Saxony. Holy Roman Emperor. 1209-1215 Otto IV is of the House of Hohenstaufen. John King of England (b.1166-1216) seizes all Church property in England. John takes over all of the revenues of the Catholic Church in England. He takes over all of the operations of the Church. Bishops are forced to flee the realm. 1209 John, King of England invades Scotland. 1209 Founding of Cambridge University. 1209 Cambridge started with a migration of scholars from Oxford University. Pope Innocent III. 1209 Excommunicates John, King of England, in the controversy over Lay Investiture of the Archbishop of Canterbury and for his attacks on Church property in England. Magdeburg Cathedral. Germany. 1209 Raymond VI of Toulouse rejects the Albigensian Heresy (Albigensianism). He submits to the Church and does penance. 1209 John, King of England. Expulsion of the Jews from England. 1209 Crusaders kill 20,000 Albigensians at Béziers. 1209 Incessant summer rains and severe winter once again produce famine and disease in England. Thousands perish. 1209 Otto IV of Saxony is crowned emperor at Rome. 1209 Otto IV. Holy Roman Emperor. 1209-1215 Francis of Assisi (1181-1226). The group around Francis has grown to twelve. Francis walks from Assisi to Rome in order to seek the approval of Pope Innocent III for his rule of life. Verbal approval is given by Pope Innocent III to the rule of life for the “Order of Friars Minor”, started by Francis of Assisi. 1210 Francis founds what is called the “Order of Friars Minor”. Saint Anthony (Antonio) of Padua. Portuguese. (b.1190 or 1195, Lisbon-d. June 13, 1231, Arcella, Italy). Joins the Canons of St. Augustine. 1210 Pope Innocent III. Excommunicates Otto IV, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, for attacking Italy. Nov. 1210 Council of Paris. 1210 Prohibits the reading of Aristotle or Averrhoist commentaries on him. Condemnation of the “Metaphysics” of Aristotle. David of Dinant’s book “Quaternuli”, now lost, is condemned and burned by the Council of Paris. Council condemns the pantheism of Amalric of Bène (d. 1207). Amalric argues that God (the Creator) and the Creation are one. Ten Amalricians (Amalrician Heresy) are burned at the stake. 1210 The Amalricians, enlarged on the heresy of Amalric of Bène, that rejected the existence of heaven and hell. Evidence of Cathar (Albigensianism) heretics in England. 1210 140 self professed Cathar (Catharism) heretics are captured at Minerve and burned at one time. 1210 John of Brienne. King of Jerusalem. 1210-1225 Rheims Cathedral. France. Construction begins (will be completed in 1427). 1210 First architect is Jean d’Orbais. First war between Venice and Genoa. 1210-1212 The Mongols, led by Genghis Khan begin invasion (1210-1215) of China. Devastation of the Ch’in Empire of China (1210-1215). 1210 The Mongol hordes under Genghis Khan unleash their military might (attacks from the flanks, encirclement, obstructed escape routes, slaughters, and massacres) in two carefully planned annual assaults. The Mongols will later utilize techniques of the Chinese (artillery, signal systems, and the art of siege). Hermann von Salza (c.1165-1239). Fourth Grand Master of the Order of Teutonic Knights. 1210-1239 Friedrich II, “Stupor Mundi” (“Wonder of the World”), is elected German emperor, rival king of Germany. 1211 Otto IV also continues to reign. Iltutmish. Moslem sultan of Delhi, India. 1211-1236 St. Clare of Assisi (1194-1253). Clare slips away on the night of Palm Sunday against her family’s protests and goes to the Franciscans at Saint Mary of Angels. 1211 John, King of England, is at war with Llywellyn the ruler of Wales. 1211 Alfonso II. King of Portugal. 1211-1223 Theodore I Lascaris kills Sultan Kaîkhosru of Iconium in battle. 1211 Frederick II (Hohenstaufen), b.1194-d.1250 (“Stupor Mundi”). King of Germany. 1212-1220 Destruction of London England by a terrible fire. 1212 3,000 perish. Sicily is devastated by floods. 1212 Unknown number of thousands dead. John, King of England (b.1166-d.1216). Exploits feudal rights provoking a plot against him. 1212 Saint Clare (Clara degli Sciffi) founds the Order of Poor Clares. 1212 Second Order of Franciscans (for women). Saint Francis of Assisi (1181-1226). Determined to preach to the Mohammedans, Francis sets out for Syria in the fall of 1212. He is shipwrecked on the way. 1212 Alfonso VIII recaptures Alarcos from the moslems. June 1212 Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. July 16, 1212 Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Between a huge army of 600,000 Mohammedans under Mohammed al Nasin, and the allied armies of Christian knights from Castile, Léon, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal led by Alfonso VIII. The Christian army of 100,000 men is led by Alfonso VIII. The Mohammedans under Mohammed I, son of el-Mansur, are routed near Toledo. Very few of their enormous host escape from the field. This is a major victory against the Mohammedan resistance to the Christian reconquest of Spain (711-1492). The Christian army kills over 150,000 Mohammedans in battle. Granada remains under Mohammedan rule. Conquest of Candia (Crete) by Venice. 1212 Eighty heretics of both noble and non-noble birth, are burnt after failing in the ordeal of red-hot iron. 1212 Death of St. Felix of Valois (1127-1212). November 4, 1212 The Children’s Crusade. 1212-1213 Crusade of 70,000 unarmed children to free the Holy Land. In France, 30,000 youths led by the young boy, Stephen of Cloyes, leave by ship (Aug. 1212) from Marseilles to Alexandria. They are captured and sold into slavery. 50,000 youths from Germany, led by the German boy, Nicholas of Cologne, march across the Alps into Italy. They march down the shores of Italy looking for transportation to the Holy Land through the Mediterranean. Pope Innocent III. Declares John, King of England, deposed. 1213 Innocent III invites Philip Augustus, King of France, to invade England. John, King of England, is forced to hurriedly make his submission to the papal legate Pandulf. King John promises to accept Stephen Langton, as Archbishop of Canterbury, to restore all stolen church property, and compensate for all of the damages that he caused. England and Ireland become papal fiefs. Pope Innocent III. 1213 Sends out a letter summoning both church and secular rulers to a general Church council that is to open in 1215. The next two years are to be used for planning and preparation. Death of Marie d’Oignies (1177-1213) at Oignies, France. June 23, 1213 Stigmatica and ecstatica. Battle of Muret September 13, 1213 (Part of the Albigensian Crusade). Fought between 1,700 Christians under Simon IV de Montfort and the Albigensians under Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse, aided by his brother in law Peter II of Aragon. Peter II of Aragon leads an army of 10,000 men to the relief of Toulouse. Simon IV de Montfort strikes with a sudden charge at the host led by Peter II of Aragon. The forces of Peter II of Aragon are not prepared for the shock. The Albigensians are destroyed by the 1,700 Christian knights of Simon IV de Montfort. Peter II of Aragon is killed in battle. Raymond VI of Toulouse makes peace. Francis of Assisi. 1213-1214 Makes his second attempt to preach to the Mohammedans. This attempt also fails when Francis falls ill in Spain while he is on the way to Morocco. Francis is forced to return back to Italy. Council of St. Albans. 1213 Precursor of Parliament. Alexander of Neckham (1157-1217). English. Elected Abbot of Cirencester. 1213 The Alahambra, Granada. Begun. 1213 Will be completed 1388. James I (b.1208-d.1276), the Conqueror. King of Aragon. 1213-1276 Death of St. John of Matha (1160-1213). Dec. 17, 1213 Truce between John, King of England, and Llywelyn of Wales. 1213 Continuation of the Mongol invasion of China. 1213 Genghis Khan attacks the Ch’in Empire of northern China. Battle of Bouvines (France). July 27, 1214 Philippe II Augustus, King of France, with 10,000 French, and the German King Friedrich II, crush an anti-French alliance of 15,000 men led by John, King of England, Otto IV, the Holy Roman Emperor, and the Count of Flanders. Philippe II Augustus leads at the center. Robert, Count of Dreux, leads the left flank. Odo III of Burgundy leads the right flank. John’s last hope of recovering Normandy and Anjou is extinguished. St. Dominic (1170-1221). Spanish founder of the Dominican Order. Receives the Rosary, during an apparition, from the Virgin Mary. 1214 Henry I. King of Castile. 1214-1217 Simon IV, Count of Montfort, the leader of the Albigensian Crusade, gives St. Dominic a castle at Casseneuil. 1214 Dominic founds an order devoted to the conversion of heretics, especially the Albigensians/ Cathars (Albigensianism/Catharism). Birth of Roger Bacon (1214-1294). 1214 Genghis Khan (Mongol chief) and his hordes come down from Mongolia, and capture Peking, China. 1215 St. Dominic of Caleruega (1170-1221). Spanish. His order is approved by Bishop Fouques of Toulouse. 1215 The Dominican Order is founded especially to combat heresy through education, teaching, argument, oratory, and example. Will be formally approved by Pope Honorius III in December 1216. Pope Innocent III (d.1216). Fourth Lateran Council (the Twelfth General Church Council). Nov. 1215 Largest assembly of its kind in the history of the Church up to this time. 412 bishops and 800 abbots are present. Innocent III traces the evils of the Church to the shortcomings of the clergy. The Council re-affirms the New Testament doctrine of Transubstantiation; that is, that the body of Christ is present in the Eucharist. Adopts measures to counteract the heresies of Catharism, Waldensianism, and Albigensianism. Provides an almost sentence by sentence refutation of the teachings of Catharism/ Albigensianism/Waldensianism. Repeats that married persons can attain to eternal salvation as well as the celibate–this is directed in particular to refute the Albigeois and Cathari. Condemns the teachings of abbot Joachim of Flora (d.1202) on the Trinity. Condemns pantheism, sorcery, witchcraft, and astrology. The Council temporarily forbids new rules (religious orders). Council members deny the request of Saint Dominic (1170-1221) that his group be established. Discusses reforms in the area of education. Makes decisions to place special emphasis on Christian teaching activity among the Mohammedans, Jews, and pagans, and to combat all heretical doctrines. Calls for a Fifth Crusade. Renewal of the prohibition (1210) of the reading of Aristotle by papal legate. 1215 Papal legate orders all students at the University of Paris to abstain from reading the writings of David of Dinant and other heretics. 1215 David of Dinant was an Aristotelian, basing himself on pure logic. He taught a form of materialistic pantheism. Emperor Otto IV is deposed. 1215 Frederick II (1194-1250) is crowned Emperor at Aachen (Aix-la-Chápelle). He is known as “Stupor Mundi”, the “astonishment of the world”. 1215 Reign of Emperor Frederick II (“Stupor Mundi”). 1215-1250 The Magna Carta (“Great Charter”). June 15, 1215 The Magna Carta of England is sealed by John I Lackland, King of England, at Runnymede, England, at the insistence of 2,000 discontent English barons. The barons refuse to fight on foreign soil and demand an end of illegal levies by the king. One of the reasons was the disastrous defeat of King John at the Battle of Bouvines (July 1214) in France. Baron’s War (1215-1217). Begins. Oct. 1215 Civil War in England. St. Francis of Assisi. 1216 Obtains the famous Portiuncula Indulgence from Pope Innocent III. Francis of Assisi receives formal charter for his order, the Friars Minor. The Order will later be called the Franciscan Order. Pope Innocent III. Condemns and annuls the Magna Carta of England as an unlawful act of rebellion of the people against a royal government. 1216 Louis (the future Louis VIII of France) is called in by some of the English barons to aid in the baron’s revolt. Jan. 1216 Some of the English nobles support succession of Prince Louis of France. Prince Louis of France, pretender to the throne of England, enters London. May 1216 Death of John (1166-1216), King of England. Oct. 19, 1216 Henry III becomes King of England (he is nine years old). Oct. 28, 1216 Henry III of England will rule from 1216 until his death in 1272. Peter. Latin Emperor of Constantinople. 1216-1217 Death of Pope Innocent III. 1216 He is succeeded by Honorius III (1216-1227). St. Dominic (1170-1221). Dec. 22, 1216 Receives formal papal approval from Pope Honorius III for the rule of life of the “Order of Preachers” (the Dominican Order). Landing of a French force in England. 1217 Prince Louis (the future Louis VIII, King of France), the son of Philippe II Augustus, King of France, supported by some of the English nobles, claims the throne of England. Battle of Lincoln. May 1217 (Part of the First Baron’s War of England). The French are defeated at Lincoln by the barons that are loyal to Henry III, King of England. Treaty of Lambeth. Sept. 1217 The French withdraw from England. Prince Louis, the pretender to the throne of England, returns to France. Meeting of Saint Francis of Assisi and Saint Dominic in Rome. 1217 Saint Francis of Assisi. 1217 Convenes the first general chapter of his Order at Portiuncula. Saint Francis seeks to organize the tremendous number of followers that have been attracted to him and to his way of life. Arrival of Franciscans in Portugal at Olivais near Coimbra. 1217 Arrival of the Dominican Order in England. 1217 Expiration of the truce between the Christians and the Mohammedans. 1217 Battle of Alcácer do Sol. 1217 (Part of the Portuguese Reconquista). Alfonso II, the third King of Portugal, attacks the moslem stronghold at Alcácer do Sol in the Estremadura. Alfonso II defeats the moslem force. A large army of Crusaders assemble at Acre with John of Brienne, King of Jerusalem, Andrew II, King of Hungary, Hugh of Lusignan, King of Cyprus, and Leopold V, Duke of Austria. 1217 Oliver of Paderborn. Begins to write the “Historia Damiatina”. 1217-1222 (“The Capture of Damietta”). Ferdinand III (b.1199-d.1252). King of Castile. 1217-1252 Will be King of Castile and Léon (1230-1252). Haakon IV. King of Norway. 1217-1263 Pope Honorius III. Authorizes a crusade against paganism in Prussia. 1217 Fifth Crusade. 1218-1221 Originally proclaimed by Pope Innocent III (c.1160-1216) in 1215. Led by Pelasius, the papal legate, Andrew II, King of Hungary, and John of Brienne, King of Jerusalem. Directed against the moslem forces in Egypt. The Crusaders felt that Jerusalem could be held only if Egypt is held. Siege of Damietta, Egypt. 1118-1119 Hermann von Salza is present at the attack on Damietta located on the Nile delta. May 1218 Damietta will be captured Nov. 1219. Death of Saphadin, brother of Saladin. 1218 Pestilence in Damietta, Egypt. 1218 67,000 perish. Only 3,000 survivors are left alive in the city. Earthquake. France. 1218 Mount Franche Comté opens and engulfs all of the inhabitants. 5,000 are killed. Arrival of the Dominican Order (Friars Preachers) in Paris. 1218 Death of Simon de Montfort I. 1218 John Asen II (son of John Asen I). King of Bulgaria. 1218-1241 Civil Wars of Bulgaria. 1218 3,000 are killed. Mongols attack the Empire of Khwarazm. 1218-1225 Mongol hordes from Central Asia conquer Turkestan and Afghanistan. Battle of Karaku. 1218 (Part of the Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire). Fought between 400,000 Mongols under Genghis Khan and 200,000 Khwarazmians (moslem) under Sultan Mohammed II of Kharizma. Both armies withdraw at nightfall after very heavy losses on both sides. Rule of Robert of Courtenay, Latin Emperor of Byzantium (Constantinople). 1218-1228 Will lose all of his lands except for Constantinople. Francis of Assisi. The Franciscans now number over 5,000 men. 1219 Francis sends his first missionaries to Tunis and Morocco from another general chapter, attended by his 5,000 friars. Francis of Assisi sends missionaries to Spain and Hungary. 1219 Francis of Assisi. Goes to Egypt with twelve friars in order to convert the Mohammedans in Palestine and Egypt. 1219 He speaks before the Sultan of Egypt, Malek Al-Kâmil, at Damietta, Egypt. Damietta at this time is being besieged by the Crusaders. Jerusalem is destroyed within and without by Coradin, son of Saphadin (the brother of Saladin). March 1219 Damietta. Nov. 5, 1219 Following a long siege of one year and a half, the Crusaders c apture the city of Damietta on the Nile delta. Valdemar II, King of Denmark, and Archbishop Andrew of Lund lead a crusade against paganism in Estonia. 1219 Battle of Khojend. 1219 (Part of the Mongol Conquest of Central Asia). Juji (Juchi), the eldest son of Genghis Khan, encounters the Moslem army of Kwarazim commanded by Mohammed the Shah of Khwarizm. After a murderous struggle in which each side loses tens of thousands of men, both armies pull back. Otrar. 1219 (Part of the Mongol invasion of Khorezm). This city (now in Uzbekistan) is besieged by 200,000 Mongols under Oktai and Zagatai, sons of Genghis Khan. Otrar is defended by 60,000 men under Gazer Khan. The citadel holds out for five months and then falls to the Mongol hordes. 12,000 of the original 60,000 defenders remain alive. Nordland (Norway). 1219 The St. Lawrence Lake bursts. 36,000 perish by drowning. St. Andrea, Vercelli, Italy. c.1219 St. Dominic (1170-1221). Convokes the first general council of the recently formed Dominican Order in Bologna, Italy. 1220 St. Dominic and his associates are so successful in Lombardy against rising heresy that over 100,000 people are reclaimed to Christianity. 1220 Arrival of the Dominican Order in England. 1220 They are welcomed by Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury. Francis of Assisi returns to Italy from Egypt. 1220 Coradin, Prince of Damascus, destroys Safita. 1220 Five Franciscans are first tortured and then beheaded by moslems when they refuse to deny the divinity of Jesus Christ. January 1220 They are killed in Morocco by Abu-Jacub. Saint Anthony of Padua (1195-1231). Portuguese. Leaves the Canons Regular of St. Augustine and joins the Franciscan Order, hoping to preach to the Mohammedans. 1220 Anthony of Padua becomes ill en route to Morocco. 1220-1221 Anthony is forced to turn back and recuperate at Messina, Sicily. Frederick II (1194-1250) is formally crowned Emperor at Rome. 1220 Holy Roman Emperor: 1220-1250. Henry III, King of England is crowned at Westminster. 1220 Bukhara (Bokhara). 1220 (Part of the Mongol conquest of Central Asia). 100,000 mounted Mongols commanded by Genghis Khan, with two of his sons Juji (Juchi) and Jagatai (Chagatai) approach Bokhara. On the approach of the Mongol horde, the entire moslem garrison of 20,000 men, flees from the place. Genghis Khan orders the slaughter of the inhabitants of Bokhara. The city is then sacked and burned by the Mongols. Destruction of Samarkand by Genghis Khan. June 1220 The ancient city of Samarkand, defended by 110,000 men under Alub Khan, is besieged by the Mongol horde under Genghis Khan. The defenders of Samarkand are almost all killed. The Mongol horde conquers eastern territories of the Caliphate. 1220 Herat. 1220 (Mongol Invasion of Afghanistan) 20,000 Mongols appear before the walls of Herat. Herat surrenders, and is put under Mongol rule. Death of St. Angelus of Jerusalem (1185-1220). May 5, 1220 Carmelite Order. Was a convert from Judaism to Christianity. Master of St. Matthew. Italian. "Crucifix ". Painting. c.1220 Salisbury Cathedral, England. Begun. 1220 Early English Gothic Cathedral. Built 1220-1258. Amiens Cathedral, France. Rebuilt. 1220-1270 Burned in 1218. Limburg Cathedral, Germany. ca.1220 Wells Cathedral. England. 1220-1255 Brussels Cathedral. Begun. 1220 Leonardo of Pisa also known as Fibonacci (1175-1250). Italian. "Practica Geometriae". Published. 1220 Writings on Algebra, Geometry, and Trigonometry. Poland is inundated by constant rain. 1220 Number of dead is unknown. Jordanus Nemorarius. c.1220 Uses letters as variables instead of generalizing from specific numerical cases. Uses letters for algebraic symbols. Cotton is manufactured in Spain. 1220 Opening of the fourth general Chapter of the Franciscan Order at Portiuncula. May 30,1221 Saint Francis of Assisi is present. Saint Anthony of Padua (he is about 26 years old at the time) is present but he is unnoticed. Death of Saint Dominic (1170-1221) at Bologna. August 6, 1221 Dominic is forced by illness to return from preaching in Hungary. Third Order of Saint Francis of Assisi. 1221 Founded for lay persons. The Crusaders lose the city of Damietta, Egypt. 1221 They abandon the Fifth Crusade (1218-1221). Crusaders evacuate Egypt. Saint Elizabeth of Hungary (1207-1231), Hungarian princess, marries Louis IV of Thuringia. 1221 Dominicans settle at Oxford University. 1221 The Dominicans of Oxford regarded the salvation of the Jews as their primary objective. Friedrich II of Germany, tightens his hold on Sicily. 1221-1225 Herat (Afghanistan). 1221 Herat rebels against Mongol rule. All of the men, women, and children of the city of Herat are massacred by the Mongols. Merv (Part of the Mongol conquest of Central Asia). March 1221 Tolui, the youngest son of Genghis Khan, takes his Mongols to the ancient city of Merv (Mary) on the Murghab River. The Mongols pour through, they massacre all of the inhabitants. The Mongols turn the Moslem city into a burned out wasteland. Bamian (Part of the Mongol conquest of Central Asia). 1221 Ghengis Khan, with 40,000 Mongols, lays siege to the city of Bamian in Afghanistan. All of the inhabitants are massacred by the Mongols. The buildings are burned to the ground. Advance of Ghenghis Khan and the Mongol hordes to the Indus River. 1221 Invasion of the Sultanate (Mohammedan) of Delhi, India by the Mongol horde. 1221 Battle of the Indus River. 1221 (Part of the Mongol Conquest of Central Asia). Genghis Khan with 40,000 mounted Mongols defeats Jalal-ad-Din, the Moslem sultan, with some 30,000 men. The Mongol horde stands unchallenged from Tibet to the Caspian Sea. Burgos Cathedral, Spain. Begun (to 1567). 1221 Niccola Pisano (c.1205-1278). Italian sculptor and architect. Moves to Naples where he works on the Castel Capuano and the Castel dell’Uovo. 1221 Appearance of the “sonnet” in Italian poetry. 1221 The development of the sonnet is credited to the Italian writer Giacomo da Lentini. Saint Anthony of Padua (1195-1231). Preaches against the Cathars (Catharism) in upper Italy. 1222-1224 Jordanus Nemorarius. German. Elected the second General of the Dominican Order. 1222 First appearance of the dreaded Mongols in Europe. 1222 Saxo Grammaticus. “Gesta Danorum.” 1222 A history of Denmark to 1222. Written in Latin. St. Raymond of Peñafort (1175-1275). Joins the Dominican Order at Barcelona, Spain. 1222 Founding of the University of Padua in Italy. 1222 The English pass a law ordering every Jew above the age of six to wear a distinctive yellow badge upon his clothing. 1222 Empire of Nicaea under John III Ducas Vatatzes is ruling from Nicaea (modern day Isnik, Turkey). 1222-1254 A terrible earthquake is felt all over northern Italy. December 25, 1222 This earthquake had been previously prophesied by St. Francis of Assisi. The final rule written by Saint Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) is approved by Pope Honorius III. 1223 Albert the Great (1206-1280). 1223 At the age of sixteen, Albert enters the Dominican Order at the University of Padua where he is a student. St. Raymond of Peñafort (1175-1275). 1223-1238 “Summa de Poenitentia” (also called “Summa Casuum”). Compiled. St. Peter Nolasco (c.1189-1258) and St. Raymond of Peñafort (1175-1275) receive approval for their Order of Our Lady of Ransom (the Mercedarians) from Bishop Berengarius of Barcelona. 1223 St. Peter Nolasco is Master General. The Mercedarian Order is supported by James, King of Aragon. Sancho II (b.1209-d.1248). King of Portugal. 1223-1245 Death of Philip II Augustus, King of France. 1223 His reign lasted forty three years. He is succeeded by Louis VIII, the Lion. Louis VIII rules 1223-1226. Louis VIII is the father of St. Louis (Louis IX of France, b.1214-d.1270). Guillaime de Bretagne. “Philippeis”. c.1223 Latin epic about Philip II Augustus, King of France. Subutai, leads armies of Genghis Khan in the first Mongol invasion of Russia. 1223 Battle of the Kalka River. 1223 Mongols under Subutai defeat a Russian force of 80,000 men at the Kalka (Kalmius) River, near the sea of Azov. The Mongols withdraw immediately after defeating the Russians. St. Francis of Assisi. Appoints St. Anthony of Padua (1195-1231) teacher of Theology. 1223 Death of Christina the Astonishing (“Mirabilis”), 1150-1224, at Saint-Trond. Ecstatica. July 24, 1224 Saint Francis of Assisi (d.1226). Receives the stigmata, two years before his death. September 14, 1224 While he is on Mount Alvernia in the Apennines, he has a vision while he is outside a cave. The figure of Jesus Christ on the cross appears to him, and wounds simultaneously open on Francis's hands, feet, and side. They are not simple lesions, but exactly simulate the wounds of Christ. They are never to leave him. Arrival of the Franciscan Order (Friars Minor) in England. 1224 Franciscans settle at Oxford University. They are led by Agnellus of Pisa. Founding of the University of Naples by Emperor Frederick II. 1224 First European University that is granted a royal charter. Outbreak of Anglo-French war (1224-1227). 1224 France declares war on England. The French seize English lands in France between the Garonne and the Loire River. Dry winter with poor harvest causes severe famine in England. 1224 Thousands perish. Emperor Frederick II (1194-1250) requires that for the practice of medicine, a degree (license) from the School of Salerno is required. 1224 The student has to survive a three year course in “scientia logicalis”, meaning natural science and philosophy. He then has to study medicine at the school for five years. Next comes practice for one year under the supervision of an experienced physician. Birth of the future Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) at Roccasecca near Aquino, Italy. 1224 St. Anthony of Padua (1195-1231). Preaches against the Cathar (Albigensian) heresy in Southern France. 1224-1227 “The Lamb of God and Prophets.” 1225 Italian-Byzantine mosaic. Baptistry, Florence. Frederick II (1194-1250) marries Isabelle de Brienne, heiress of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 1225 The works of Johannes Scotus Eriugena are solemnly censured by the Church. 1225 Beauvais Cathedral. France. 1225-1552 The English win Gascony, regaining much of the land lost in 1224. 1225 The Magna Carta is reissued for the third time in definitive form. 1225 Battle of Karamuran. 1225 Between 200,000 Mongols under Genghis Khan and 350,000 Turks and Chinese under Shidasker of Tangat. Shidasker is defeated with a loss of almost 200,000 men. Leonardo of Pisa (also called Fibonacci). “Liber quadratorum” (“The Book of the Square”). 1225 Provides a major advance in number theory since the works of Diophantus one thousand years earlier. Writes on Diophantine Equations of the second degree. Jordanus Nemorarius. c.1225 “Algorismus Demonstratus” (“Algorithm Demonstrated”). Uses letters in an early form of algebraic notation. “De numeris datis” (“On given numbers”). c.1225 Contains rules for solving problems. “Mechanica.” c.1225 Contains a law of the lever and the law of the composition of movements. “Elementa Jordani super demonstrationen ponderis”. c.1225 (“Elements for the demonstration of weights”). Death of Louis VIII, the Lion, King of France. 1226 He is succeeded by his son Louis IX (1214-1270), age 12. Louis IX, King of France rules 1226-1270. Louis VIII’s widow, Blanche of Castile, acts as Regent for the boy king until he comes of age in 1234. Upon the request of Konrad Mazowiecki, the Polish Duke of Masovia, Frederick II (1194-1250), dispatches the Palestine based Order of the Teutonic Knights under the Grand Master Hermann von Salza to undertake the Christianization, colonization, and conquest (to 1283) of Prussia. 1226 They are to help in the struggle against the pagan Prussians. Golden Bull of Rimini. 1226 Frederick II grants the Order of Teutonic Knights sovereignty over Prussia. He appoints Hermann von Salza, Prince of the Empire. Lombard League is re-established against Frederick II. 1226 Death of St. Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) at Assisi. October 3, 1226 He is in his forty fifth year. The destruction of Toulouse. 1226-1229 Pope Honororius III. Confirms the order of the Carmelites (the Carmelite Order). 1226 Laon Cathedral. Completed. 1226 Founding of the University of Salamanca. 1227 Gregory IX. Pope. 1227-1241 Alfonso IX of Leon recaptures Badajoz from the moslems. 1227 Cathedral of Toledo, Spain, begun. Spanish Gothic style. Will be completed in 1500. 1227 Truce in the Anglo-French War (1224-1227) is proclaimed. 1227 Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, finally sets out for Jerusalem. He is forced to turn back by illness. Sept. 1227 Great famine, throughout Ireland. 1227 Thousands perish. Gregory IX excommunicates Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. 1227 Frederick II is forbidden to go on a crusade as long as he is under excommunication. Saint Anthony of Padua (1195-1231). Serves as Provincial of the Italian province of Romagna. 1227-1230 After several campaigns (1205, 1207, 1209), the Mongols finally destroy the Hsi Hsia Kingdom in China. 1227 Massacre at Ning-hsia. Genghis Khan finally dies. 1227 Ogadai (Ugudei), son of Genghis Khan, will become the Mongol ruler, great khan, in 1229. Partition of the Mongol Empire between each of the other sons of Genghis Khan (khanates). Batu receives Juchi, Kipchak in Russia. Jagatai receives the former Kara-Khitai empire. Tului receives eastern Mongolia and North China. Karakorum becomes the capital of the Mongol Empire. Battle of Bornhöved. July 1227 North Germans severely beat the royal Danish army. End of Danish control of Schleswig-Holstein province. Canonization of St. Francis of Assisi. 1228 Church of Saint Francis at Assisi is begun. Completed in 1239. 1228 Saint Anthony of Padua (1195-1231) begins permanent residence at Padua, Italy. 1228 Frederick II (1194-1250) once again sets out for the East, but this time he is under excommunication. 1228 He proceeds first to Cyprus and then on to Jerusalem. The Sixth Crusade. 1228-1229 Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II leads the Knights of the Teutonic Order to the Holy Land. Frederick II at the time is under excommunication. He recovers Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth for the Christians by making a treaty (1229) with the Sultan of Egypt Melik-el-Kâmil. This treaty will end in 1244. This treaty was forbidden by the Pope. Knights of the Teutonic Order begin taking over parts of Russia. 1228 Founding of the University of Vercelli in Italy. 1228 Flood. Friesland, Holland. 1228 Country is devastated by an irruption of the sea. 100,000 perish. Walther von der Vogelweide. “Nu Alerst Leb’Ich Min Werde”, song of the crusader. 1228 Will not be discovered until 1910. John of Brienne. Emperor of Constantinople. 1228-1237 He is regent for the boy king. Ogadai (Ughetai), the Great Khan, the Mongol leader, is elected successor to his father Genghis Khan. 1229 Ogadai rules 1229-1241. Emperor Frederick II, after his excommunication (1227) by the Pope, concludes a peace, as King of Jerusalem, with the Sultan of Egypt al-Malik-al Kamil. Feb. 18,1229 Frederick II of Germany (b.1194-d.1250), recaptures Jerusalem. He rides into Jerusalem, as the king of that city. March 11, 1229 He is watched by Maronite and Greek priests, by moslems, and escorted by a retinue of knights. No bishop, no priest, no friar, no Christian awaits him at the Holy Sepulchre. Frederick II crowns himself King of Jerusalem. Frederick II. King of Jerusalem. 1229-1250 Frederick II attempts to slip away unnoticed during the night. 1229 Frederick II is forced to flee for his ship as the crowd hurls excrement and rotting offal at him. Henry III, King of England, fails to capture Aquitaine, France. 1229 Friedrich II expels papal forces invading Apulia, Italy. June 1229 St. Nicaise Cathedral. France. 1229 This is one of the many churches that will be destroyed by French atheists during the French Revolution. Church Council of Toulouse. 1229 Attempts to identify heresy and heretics (Catharism in particular). Founding of the University of Toulouse in France. 1229 First university to be founded by a Papal Bull. Intended as a citadel of orthodoxy “in terra Albigensium”. Raymond of Toulouse. Previously a supporter of Albigensianism/Catharism, adds his lands, comprising much of southern France to royal domains. 1229 Peace of Paris. 1229 Ends the Albigensian Crusade. James I, the Conqueror, King of Aragon (1213-1276). 1229-1235 Conquers the Balearic Islands. Coucy Castle, France. c.1230 Bulgarian-Greek Wars. 1230 Failure of Henry III’s campaign in Poitou, France. 1230 Wars of the Seljuk Turks. 1230-1243 26,000 total war dead. Ferdinand III (b.1199-d.1252) of Castile. Recaptures large territory from the Mohammedans. 1230 Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Ferdinand III (b.1199-d.1252) of Castile. Unites Christian kingdom of Castile and Léon in Spain. 1230 Rules 1230-1252. Spain is now dominated by two great Christian kingdoms, Castile in the west and Aragon in the east. Peace of San Germano. 1230 Between Emperor Frederick II and Pope Gregory IX. Frederick II is absolved from his excommunication. Wenceslas I. King of Bohemia. 1230-1253 Bartholomew de Glanville (Bartholomaeus Anglicus). English. “De Proprietatibus Rerum”. An encyclopedia of natural science. Written in Latin, later translated into English. c.1230-1250 Cathedral of Strasbourg. 1230-1250 St. Raymond of Peñafort (1175-1275). 1230 Called to Rome by Pope Gregory IX in order to become his confessor. Battle of Erzincan (Wars of the Seljuk Turks). 1230 Seljuk Turks under sultan Ala ud-Din Kaikobad, shatter the Persian army of Jalal-ad-Din near Erzincan on the Western Euphrates River. Pope Gregory IX authorizes the Teutonic Order to conquer the western Prussian pagans. 1230 Pope Gregory IX. Establishes the Papal Order of the Inquisition at Rome with powers to investigate heresy (Catharism, Albigensianism, and Luciferianism) throughout the Church. 1231 Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) is placed by his parents in the monastery of Monte Cassino near his home. 1231 He is seven years old at the time. Beginning of the westward spread of the Mongols into Persia. 1231 Three year truce between England, France, and Brittany. 1231 First Mongol invasion of Korea. Aug. 1231-Jan. 1232 The Mongols take over Korea. The Mongol general Saritai leaves behind 72 officials in various cities to maintain Mongol control over Korea. English conspiracy against the Italian clergy. 1231 Ertogrul, chieftain of the Turks. 1231-1288 Death of St. Anthony of Padua (1195-1231). June 13, 1231 Born in Portugal in 1195, he is thirty six years old at this time. Death of St. Elizabeth of Hungary (1207-1231) at Marburg. Nov. 17, 1231 She is not yet twenty four years old. In the spring of 1231, the army of the Teutonic Knights crosses the Vistula River. 1231 Conrad of Marburg. 1231 Appointed by Gregory IX to act as inquisitor-general in Germany. He will later be censured in 1233 for his severity. Ferdinand III (b.1199-d.1252) of Castile. Leads the forces of Castile in the re-capture of Quesada, Spain from the moslems. 1231 Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Battle of Jerez. 1231 Ferdinand III defeats Emia Ibn Hud of the Taifa of Murcia. Nicola Pisano (c.1205-1278). Italian sculptor and architect. Designs the basilica of St. Anthony of Padua at Padua, Italy. 1231 Second Mongol invasion of Korea. June 1232-Dec. 1232 The Mongols crush an attempted revolt by the Koreans. Alliance of Mongols and Sung Dynasty in Southern China. 1232 Mohammed I (1232-1272), founder of the Nasrid Dynasty (1232-1492) in moslem Granada, Spain. Will be first king of Granada (1238-1273). 1232 Angers Castle. France. 1232 Robert Grosseteste (c.1168-1253). English Franciscan. “Computus Correctorius”. c.1232 Provides a set of tables for the calculation of astronomical events and moving dates (e.g. Easter). Grosseteste presents the first steps toward the development of the future Gregorian Calendar (1582). Pope Gregory IX. Makes the Dominican Order responsible for the extirpation of heresy. 1233 In particular, Gregory IX gives the Dominican Order sole authority to prevent the spread of the Albigensian, Cathar, and Waldensian heresies in southern France, Germany, and the rest of Europe. The “Great Hallelujah”. 1233 Penitential movement in northern Italy. St. Edmund of Abingdon (c.1180-1240). Elected Archbishop of Canterbury. 1233 He will be consecrated in 1234 against his wishes. Battle of Altenesch. May 27, 1234 Fought against heretics in Stedingen near Bremen. Friedrich II of Germany faces a revolt by his son, Heinrich VII. 1234-1235 Theobald I (Spanish: Teobaldo). King of Navarre. 1234-1253 Canonization of Saint Dominic (1170-1221), founder of the Dominican Order. 1234 Ogadai, the Mongol Khan, leads the Mongol hordes, and completes the conquest of Northern China (the Ch’in Empire). The Mongols annex the Ch’in Empire. 1234 Battle of Sirgune River (aka Battle of Reisen). 1234 Knights of the Teutonic Order win the Battle of Sirguna in Prussia fought against the Prussian pagans. Marriage of Louis IX (1214-1270) of France to Margaret of Provence. 1234 Louis IX assumes reign of ruler when he comes of age in the same year. St. Peter of Verona (c.1205-1252). Italian. 1234 Appointed, by Pope Gregory IX, to be inquisitor general of all of northern Italy. Decretals of Pope Gregory IX. Issued. 1234 Compilation of papal decrees is compiled by St. Ramon de Peñafort. Robert Grosseteste (c.1168-1253). English Franciscan. Bishop of Lincoln. 1235-1253 Grosseteste wrote works on theology, philosophy, physics, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, optics, and logic. He also knew Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. Saint Elizabeth (Church), Marburg, Germany. 1235-1283 Pope Gregory IX. Gives formal papal approval for the Order of Our Lady of Ransom (Mercedarians). 1235 Bonaventura Berlinghieri. Italian. St. Francis altarpiece. Painting. c.1235 With six scenes from the life of St. Francis of Assisi (1181-1226). St. Raymond of Peñafort (1175-1275). Named archbishop of Terragona, despite his protests. 1235 He persuades Pope Gregory IX to recall his appointment. He will return to Spain in 1236. Mongol campaign in Europe begins. 1235 Frederick II of Germany. Suppresses the rebellion of his own son Henry VII. 1235 Frederick II imprisons his son Henry VII. Mainz Public Peace. 1235 First imperial law written in the German language. Robert Grosseteste (c.1168-1253). English Franciscan. “Hexaemeron”. (“On the Six Days of Creation”). c.1235 Famine, plague, and disease in England. 1235 People eat cats, dogs, mice, rats, tree bark, roots, and grass. Thousands perish. Bela IV. King of Hungary. 1235-1270 Frederick II of Germany declares war on the Lombard League. 1235 Destruction of the Kama Bulgars by the Mongols. 1236 Reign of Alexander Nevsky, Grand Duke of Novgorod, in Russia. 1236-1263 Fernando III of Castile. Recaptures Córdoba, Spain from the Arab Mohammedans. June 1236 Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Seizure of Szechuan, China by the Mongols. 1236-1238 Battle of Cortenuova. Nov. 27, 1237 Friedrich II of Germany, crushes the Guelph forces of the Second Lombard League at Cortenuova, Italy. Third Mongol invasion of Korea. July 1235-April 1239 The Mongols execute all of the Koreans who attempt to resist them. The Sword Brothers are defeated by the Lithuanians at Siaula (Saule). 1236 Death of St. Conon of Nesi (Naso), b.1139-d.1236. March 28, 1236 Basilian abbot at Nesi (Naso), Sicily. The Knights of the Teutonic Order unite with the Livonian order, the Brothers of the Sword. 1237 Beginning of the Second Mongol (Tartar) invasion of Russia (1237-1240). 1237 Mongol ruler Batu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, renews the invasion and conquest of Russia. He has an army of 150,000 Mongol horsemen. In three years they will subjugate Russia. Battle of the Puig. Aug. 15, 1237 Spanish defeat the moslem forces under Zayyan ibn Mardanish. Niccola Pisano (c.1205-1278). Italian sculptor and architect. 1237 Makes his first known essay in sculpture in the alto-rilievo of the Deposition, that is still in the tympanum of the arch over a side door of San Martino in Lucca. Baldwin II. Emperor of Constantinople. 1237-1261 Frederick II of Germany. Second Lombard campaign against Guelph forces. 1237 James (Jaime) I, the Conqueror, King of Aragon, liberates Valencia. James I drives the moslems from Valencia. Sept. 28, 1238 Part of the Spanish Reconquista of Spain (711-1492). Formation of the Kingdom of Granada (1238-1492) by the Mohammedans. Mohammedan kings will rule Granada from 1238 until the final expulsion of the Mohammedans from Spain in 1492. Mohammed I is first king of Granada. Rules 1238-1273. 1238 Frederick II of Germany. Third Lombard campaign against Guelph forces. 1238 St. Raymond of Peñafort (1175-1275). Elected master general of the Dominican Order (1238-1240). 1238 He is unwilling to accept his election but he finally obeys. Henry II, the Pious. King of Poland. 1238-1241 The Mongols, under Batu, burn Moscow, Russia. 1238 Alliance of Venice, Genoa, and Pope Gregory IX against Frederick II of Germany. 1238 Frederick II of Germany and Sicily. Makes death by burning a mandatory sentence for heresy. 1238-1239 Louis IX (b.1214-d.1270), King of France, receives the Crown of Thorns from Baldwin II, Emperor of Constantinople. 1239 Arrival of the Crown of Thorns in Paris. Death of Hermann von Salza, Grandmaster of the Teutonic Order. 1239 Famine and disease in England. 1239 Thousands perish. Pope Gregory IX. Once again excommunicates Frederick II of Germany. March 1239 The Mongols sack Ani, the capital of Armenia. 1239 Pierre de Vieille Bride. Becomes Master of the Order of St. John Hospitaller. 1239 Robert le Petit. Convicts 183 Cathars (Catharism) at Mont-Aimé. 1239 They are burned at one mass execution. Louis IX of France rebuilds La Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, France. 1239-1246 Designed to house the relics that were brought back from the Holy Land by Louis IX, in particular the Crown of Thorns. The Mongols capture what is now Moscow, Russia. 1240 The Mongols under Batu Khan, capture and destroy Kiev. Dec. 6, 1240 End of Russian resistance to the Mongol hordes. The Mongols begin to exact tribute from the Russians. 1240 Russia becomes tributary to the Mongol invaders. Marks the completion of the conquest of Russia by the Mongols. The Swedes attack Novgorod. 1240 Battle of the Neva. 1240 The army of Aleksandr Nevski, the Russian Prince of Novgorod (now in Russia), halts and defeats the Swedish advance at the Neva River. Richard of Cornwall and Simon de Montfort start Crusade to Jaffa. 1240 In England, the “Great Council” is called “Parliament”. 1240 Castel del Monte. Apulia, Southern Italy. c.1240 Built by Frederick II of Germany. Death of St. Edmund of Abingdon (c.1180-1240). Nov. 16, 1240 Jalal al-Din Muhammad Mowlavi (1207-1273). Persian. Writes the “Masnavi”. c.1240 Bartholomeus Anglicus (Bartholomew of England). Franciscan Order. “De proprietatibus rerum”. 1240 (“On the Properties of things”). A forerunner of the modern day encyclopedia. Written in nineteen books. Thomas de Chantimpré (1201-1272). “Liber de natura rerum”. c.1240 (“On the nature of things”). An encyclopedic type work. Disputation of Paris. 1240 Public debate on the Jewish Talmud. Nicholas Donin, a Jewish convert to Christianity, presents 35 articles for discussion at the debate. Defending the Talmud are four rabbis of France. Their names are Yechiel of Paris, Moses of Coucy, Judah of Melun, and Samuel ben Solomon of Château-Thierry. The result of this public debate is that the Talmuds are to be burned. Louis IX, King of France, orders all copies of the Talmud in France to be burned (see 1242). 1240 Liebfrauenkirche (Cathedral), Trier, Germany. Begun. c.1240 Border is fixed between England and Scotland. 1240 Pope Gregory IX. Authorizes a crusade against the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II of Germany. 1240 The Mongol hordes invade Hungary, Poland, and Bulgaria. 1240 Frederick II of Germany, ravages papal Italy. 1241 Assisi is threatened by the armies of the Emperor Frederick II. 1241 St. Clare of Assisi is hurried from her bed to the city walls. She holds up the Sacred Host before which his besieging pagan Saracen mercenaries flee. The Mongol horde leaves its base in southern Russia and begins to cross the frozen rivers into Central Europe. Feb. 1241 The Mongols are over 70,000 men, led by Batu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, and Subotai. The Mongols defeat Boleslav V at Cracow, Poland. March 1241 Fall of Cracow to the Mongols. Fall of Breslau (Wroclaw) to the Mongols. 1241 Battle of Liegnitz (Silesia) April 9, 1241 Mongol army of Kaidu, a grandson of Genghis Khan, defeats a German-Polish army commanded by Henry II, duke of Silesia. Over 25,000 Europeans are killed. Kaidu then crosses the central Carpathians in order to join the main body of Mongols in Hungary. Battle of the Sajo River (also known as the Battle of Mohi). 1241 The 100,000 man Hungarian army led by Béla IV, King of Hungary, is defeated by the Mongol horde. The Hungarian army, with 70,000 men dead, virtually ceases to exist. The Mongols will occupy Hungary for one year. Ogadai (Ughetai), the ruler of the Mongols finally dies. 1241 Batu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, suddenly turns back east on hearing of the death of his father, Ogadai (Ughetai). Europe is saved from the Mongol hordes because of the retreat of the Mongol barbarians, caused by the sudden and unexpected death of their ruler, Ogadai (Ughetai). 1241 The Mongols withdraw from Europe and return home in order to elect a new leader (Khan). 1241 With exception of the Golden Horde (from 1242) on the lower Volga River, the Mongols vanish forever from Europe. Master of Naumberg. Produces sculptural works at Meissen, Mainz, and Naumberg. 1241 From 1241 to 1260. Knights of the Teutonic Order attack Novgorod. 1242 Battle of Lake Peipus. 1242 Alexander Nevsky, Grand Duke of Novgorod, defeats an army of Teutonic Knights in a winter battle on the frozen surface of Lake Peipus. Bonaventure receives Master of Arts degree in Paris. 1242 In accordance with the custom of the time, he immediately begins his theological studies under Alexander of Hales, the great English Franciscan. Twenty four cartloads of copies of the Jewish Talmud are brought to Paris and burned (see 1240). 1242 Batu, a grandson of Genghis Khan, establishes “the realm of the Golden Horde” for the Mongols at Sarai, on the Lower Volga River, Russia. 1242 The Empire of the Golden Horde will dominate Russia from the south until 1480. Russian rulers are vassals under the Mongols. 1242 English-French Wars. 1242 Henry III, King of England, foments revolt against Louis IX, King of France, in southwestern France. The English Parliament refuses to give Henry III money to pay for French wars. Louis IX, King of France, puts down revolts in southwestern France. 1242-1243 Battle of Saintes (aka Battle of Taillebourg). July 1242 Louis IX (b.1214-d.1270) of France defeats Henry III, King of England, at Taillebourg. Henry III withdraws his forces from France. Louis IX, King of France, forces Poitou to submit to him. 1242 Church Council of Tarragona. 1242 Al-Musta’sim last reigning caliph. 1242-1258 Rules until the end of the Empire of the Caliphate in 1258 when it will be destroyed by the Mongol hordes. Albertus Magnus. Becomes the first German to hold a chair at the University of Paris. 1242 The Mongols defeat the Seljuk Turks near Köse Dagh in eastern Anatolia. June 1243 Famine in Hungary. 1243 Caused by the Mongol invasion. Thousands perish. Innocent IV. Pope. 1243-1254 Castile subdues the Mohammedan state of Murcia. 1243 Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Louis IX (b.1214-d.1270), King of France. Compels Raymond VII of Toulouse to submit to him. 1243 Five year truce between England and France. 1243 Christians retake the city of Jerusalem for one year. 1243 Siege of the Cathar (Catharism) fortress of Montségur. 1243 The Cathar stronghold will fall to a Christian army in 1244 after a ten month siege. Founding of the University of Salamanca in Spain. 1243 Confirmed by Ferdinand III of Castile. Boleslaus, the Chaste. King of Poland. 1243-1279 Reconquest of Jerusalem by the Egyptian Mohammedans under the Egyptian Sultan. 1244 Loss of the city of Jerusalem to Christianity. Leads to the Seventh Crusade (1248). Battle of La Forbie. Oct. 17, 1244 (Part of the Sixth Crusade). Moslem forces defeat the Christian army. Beginning of Mongol incursions into Asia Minor (Anatolia). 1244 Friedrich II of Germany invades Campagna, Italy. 1244 Pope Innocent IV is forced to flee from Rome to escape from Frederick II. 1244 He goes to Lyons. Innocent IV remains at Lyons until after the death of Frederick II in 1250. Founding of the University of Rome. 1244 St. Richard of Chichester, Richard de Wych (c.1197-1253). Made Bishop of Chichester, England. 1244 St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). Enters the Dominican Order. 1244 The Mongol hordes ravage Armenia, Mesopotamia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan. 1245-1253 Pope Innocent IV. Sends out his first missionaries to the Mongols. 1245 His objectives are to make conversions to Christianity and to mitigate the Mongol depredations in Eastern Europe. Giovanni de Plano Carpini (1180-1252). 1245 Italian Franciscan envoy of Pope Innocent IV to the Mongols. He is sent to Karakorum, in Outer Mongolia, in order to convert the Mongol Khan, Guyuk Khan. Giovanni, now age 65, had actually been a student of Francis of Assisi. Benedict of Poland, another Franciscan, will be his companion to Mongolia and back. Giovanni de Plano Carpini (1180-1252). Franciscan Order. Leaves Lyons, on his journey to the Mongols (Tartars). April 16, 1245 He will remain there 1245-1247. He will return November 1247. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). Dominican Order. 1245 Aquinas, age 19, goes to Paris to the convent of Saint-Jacques, the great university centre of the Dominican Order. There he becomes a student under Albertus Magnus, a great scholar with a wide range of interests. Aquinas studies in Paris 1245-1252. Albert the Great (c.1206-1280). German Dominican. 1245 Receives his doctorate degree at the University of Paris. Thirteenth General Church Council (First Council of Lyons). 1245 Pope Innocent IV declares Emperor Friedrich II of Germany deposed. Innocent IV re-excommunicates Emperor Frederick II of Germany. Recalling all of the recent Mongol atrocities in Russia, Poland, and Hungary, the Council encourages the defense of Christendom against the Mongol hordes. Alfonso III. King of Portugal. 1245-1279 La Compagnia della Fede. 1245 An Anti-Cathar (Catharism) Christian society. Boniface of Savoy. Archbishop of Canterbury. 1245 Present structure of Westminster Abbey, London. 1245-1258 Ch’in-Shao. Chinese. “Mathematical treatise in nine sections”. 1245 Deals with equations of degree higher than the third degree. La Sainte-Chapelle, Paris. 1246 Completed by St. Louis IX, King of France. Begun 1239. Spanish Christians take back Jaén from the moslem forces in Spain. 1246 Election of Guyuk, son of Ogadai, as Khan of the Mongols. 1246 Guyuk rules 1246-1248. Giovanni de Plano Carpini, the envoy of Pope Innocent IV, is present. Death of Saint Lutgardis (1182-1246). Flemish. June 16, 1246 Ecstatica, stigmatica. John Vatatzes III, Emperor of Nicaea. Wins northern Macedonia and Thessalonica from the Bulgarians. 1246 The re-excommunicated Frederick II of Germany seizes the vacant Dukedoms of Austria and Styria. 1246 Odense Cathedral. Denmark. 1247 Gothic style of architecture. Death of Archbishop Rodrigo Ximenez de Rada (c.1170-1247). 1247 Under the leadership of this archbishop, Toledo, Spain became a foremost center of education, learning, teaching, study, and translation. Jaime (James) I of Aragon. Orders the expulsion of all Jews from his kingdom. 1247 Roger Bacon (c.1214-1292). English Franciscan. Begins his experimental research in chemistry, biology, physics, optics, and astronomy. 1247 Pope Innocent IV. Preliminary approval is given by Rome to a rule of life for the Carmelites (the Carmelite Order). 1247 A bitter war in Italy is fought between Frederick II of Germany and the papal allies. 1247-1250 Founding of the University of Siena in Italy. 1247 Giovanni de Plano Carpini (1180-1252). After leaving Karakorum, he returns from his voyage (1245-1247). He returns to Pope Innocent IV. November 1247 Immediately upon his return, he writes his description of the Mongols. “Historia Mongalorum Quos Nos Tartaros Appelamus” (“The Story of the Mongols Whom We Call the Tartars”). Fourth Mongol invasion of Korea. July 1247-March 1248 The Mongols under Amuqan mercilessly pillage the Korean peninsula. The Seventh Crusade (1248). Begins. 1248 Crusade is launched by Louis IX, King of France. Louis IX intends to destroy Mohammedan power in Egypt where it is the strongest. Arrival of Louis IX (1214-1270), King of France, at Cyprus (on his way to Egypt). Sept. 1248 Ferdinand III of Castile. Nov. 1248 Re-captures Seville from the Mohammedans after a siege of two years and two months. The Mohammedans are given one month to leave the city. Seville had been under Mohammedan rule since the year 711. The present Cologne Cathedral in Germany is begun. Aug. 15, 1248 The foundation stone is laid (built 1248-1880). Sequence “Dies Irae”, attributed to Thomas of Celano (music). 1248 St. Bonaventura (1221-1274). Franciscan Order. 1248-1255 Teaches Theology and Scripture at Paris. St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) receives his degree of Bachelor of Theology at the University of Paris. 1248 Albertus Magnus (c.1206-1280). Dominican Order. 1248-1252 Teaching at Köln. Thomas Aquinas is his chief student. Genoese take Rhodes. 1248 Friedrich II, German emperor, besieges Parma, Italy. 1248 The Lombard League defeats Frederick II at Parma. Famine throughout Germany. Thousands perish. 1248 Louis IX (1214-1270), King of France. Dispatches as his ambassador, the Dominican Andrew of Longumeau, on his overland journey to the court of the Mongol Khan. 1248 Founding of the University of Piacenza, Italy. 1248 Niccola Pisano (c.1205-1278). Italian sculptor and architect. c.1248 Builds the Santa Trinità at Florence, the San Domenico at Arezzo, the duomo at Volterra, and the Pieve and Santa Margarita at Cortona. Louis IX (1214-1270), King of France. Lands in Egypt with a force of 40,000 Crusaders. June 4, 1249 Louis IX (b.1214-d.1270), King of France. Captures Damietta, located on the Nile Delta. 1249 Raymond VII of Toulouse orders 80 relapsed Cathar (Catharism) eretics to be burnt at Agen. 1249 Roger Bacon (1214-1294). English Franciscan. Records the existence of explosives in his writings. 1249 Alexander III. King of Scotland. 1249-1286 Founding of University College at Oxford. 1249 Mechthild of Magdeburg (1207-1282). Ecstatica. South German Benedictine from the convent of Helfde. “The Flowing Light of the Godhead”. Written. 1250-1265 Louis IX (1214-1270), King of France. Marches on to the enemy capital of Cairo, Egypt. 1250 Louis IX (b.1214-d.1270), King of France. Feb. 1250 While crusading in Egypt he is defeated by the Mohammedans at the Battle of El Mansûra. Much of his forces are massacred or taken prisoner. He is captured by the moslems and taken prisoner with his surviving army. End of the Hohenstaufen Dynasty. 1250 Death of German Emperor Frederick II (1194-1250), the last Hohenstaufen, actually crowned Emperor. He is succeeded by his son Konrad (Conrad) IV (b.1228-d.1254). Conrad was never crowned Holy Roman Emperor. Conrad IV rules 1250-1254. Beginning of Mameluke rule in Egypt. 1250 The Mamelukes, descendants of former Turkish slave troops, seize power in Egypt from the Ayyubid sultans. They murder the last Ayyubid ruler of Egypt. The Mamelukes, begin to rule Egypt. They take Damascus and Aleppo. The Mamelukes will check Mongol advances. The Mamelukes will rule Egypt until 1517. Valdemar I. King of Sweden. 1250-1275 Birger Jarl, his father, will be regent until 1266. “Easter Play of Muri”. Beginning of German drama. 1250 “The Harrowing of Hell”. 1250 Earliest extant English play. Bonaventura (Giovanni de Fidenza), 1221-1274. Franciscan Order. Receives the degree of Bachelor of Theology (Baccalaureus Sententiarum) at the University of Paris. 1250 Master of the Magdalen. Italian. ca.1250-1270 Paints a panel of eight scenes from the life of Saint Mary Magdalen. St. Thomas Church, Leipzig. Begun. 1250 Margaritone d’Arezzo. Italian. “Virgin Mary and Child”. Painting. With eight scenes from the Scriptures. c.1250 Establishment of four national colleges at the University of Paris. 1250 Vincent of Beauvais (c.1190-c.1264). French Dominican. “Imago mundi” (“Image of the World''). c.1250 Also called the “Speculum Maius”. Tremendous encyclopedia summarizing the knowledge of the times. Equal to forty sizable modern volumes. It is divided into three parts: “Speculum naturale” “Speculum doctrinale” and “Speculum historiale”. Alphonso III of Portugal. Algarve, in the south of Portugal, is finally recaptured from the Mohammedans by Alphonso III of Portugal. 1250 Brings Portuguese mainland to its present day limits. Louis IX (b.1214-d.1270). King of France. Ransoms himself, and goes to the Holy Land. Louis IX will remain in the Holy Land from 1250 to 1254. 1250 Christian forces recapture Cadiz, Spain from the moslems. 1250 Dominican Order. Opens a “School of Oriental Studies” at Toledo, Spain. 1250 Albertus Magnus (c.1206-1280). “On Animals”. 1250 Describes his observations of various animals and insects. Conrad (Konrad) IV, German Emperor, son of Frederick II. Campaigns in Italy. 1251-1254 Mangu (Möngke), grandson of Genghis Khan. Elected Great Khan of the Mongols. 1251 Mangu rules from 1251 to 1259. Appearance of the Virgin Mary to St. Simon Stock (c.1165-1265) on Sunday, July 16, 1251. July 16, 1251 She confers upon him the Brown Scapular with the promise that whoever wears it will not suffer eternal fire. (Our Lady of Mount Carmel). Aylesford, England. Kublai Khan (Mongol) becomes Governor of China. 1251 Ottokar, Margrave of Moravia, son of King Wenceslas I of Bohemia, is elected Duke of Austria. 1251 Hulago conquers Persia and establishes the Mongol ruled Empire of the Il-Khans. 1251-1265 Grand Duke Mindaugas (c.1219-1263) of Lithuania pretends to convert to Christianity before Pope Innocent IV. 1251 In 1261 Mindaugas will reject Christianity and revert back to the pagan religion of Lithuania. The Great Khan Mongka dispatches two armies of half a million Mongols each. 1251-1259 Roger Bacon returns to Oxford, England from Paris. 1251 Alfonso X, the Wise, of Castile and Leon. 1252-1284 Alfonso (b.1221-d.1284) was an author, poet, historian, astronomer, and scholar as well as king. He wrote the “General Estoria” and the “Estoria de España”. Alfonso X is responsible for a compilation of over 400 “Cantigas de Santa Maria”, hymns to the Virgin Mary, in the Galician-Portuguese dialect. Causes the Scriptures to be translated into Castilian (c.1254). Alphonsine Tables (Tabulae Alfonsinae). c.1252 Set of astronomical tables compiled by astronomers at the command of Alfonso X, the Wise. Alfonso X also establishes a school of manuscript illumination (c.1252). Bruno da Longoburgo. Italian. “Chirurgica Magna”. 1252 His writings on medicine, appear at Padua, Italy. Pope Innocent IV. “Ad extirpanda”. Papal Bull. 1252 Martyrdom of St. Peter Martyr (c.1205-1252). April 6, 1252 Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). Dominican Order. Called to teach at Paris. 1252 Thomas finds (1252) Averroism is rampant at the University of Paris. Thomas teaches at Paris 1252-1261 and then again 1269-1272. Kublai, brother of Mongka (Mangu), crushes Nan-chao. 1252-1253 Gold florin is first coined at Florence. 1252 Aleksandr Nevski (Russian). Becomes the last Russian Prince of Vladimir. 1252 Church of St. Francis, Assisi. Completed. 1252 Death of Saint Rose of Viterbo (1235-1252). March 6, 1252 Louis IX (b.1214-d.1270), King of France. Sends Wilhelm van Ruysbroeck to the Mongol Khan. 1252 William of Rubruck leaves Constantinople (May 7), takes ship across the Black Sea to the Crimea, and then goes overland across the Don. Voyage 1252-1255. Famine in England caused by incessant rains. 1252 Thousands perish. Death of St. Clare of Assisi (1194-1253) at Assisi. August 11, 1253 St. Bonaventure (1221-1274). Receives the degree and office of Master of Theology. 1253 John of Halifax (also known as Sacrobosco). Introduces the Decimal System into England. 1253 Venice and Genoa are at war. 1253 The Knights of the Teutonic Order crush Prussian revolt. 1253 Roger Bacon (1214-1292) enters the Franciscan Order. c.1253 He never becomes a priest however. Ottokar (Ottocar) II. King of Bohemia. 1253-1278 Ottokar II, King of Bohemia, seizes Austria. 1253 Rules Austria 1253-1276. Teobaldo II. King of Navarre. 1253-1270 St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). “Commentary on the Sentences”. 1253-1259 Fifth Mongol invasion of Korea. July 1253-Jan.1254 Jalairtai Qorchi ravages Korea. Conrad IV (b.1228-d.1254), son of Frederick II, continuing in his struggle with Pope Innocent IV, prepares to renew war in Italy. 1253 Wilhem of Rubruck (aka Guillaume de Rubrouck). Flemish Franciscan. Sent by St. Louis IX, King of France, in 1252, to visit the Mongol Khan. Visits Mangu the Great Khan of the Mongols. His journey takes him from Constantinople across Asia. He travels in Central Asia and will report his experiences (to 1255). Arrives at Karakorum (Mongolia) December 1254. 1254 Meeting of Mongka Khan, the son of a Nestorian mother, with William of Rubruck, the envoy of Louis IX, King of France. 1254 Death of Conrad I (1228-1254), the son of Frederick II. 1254 Conrad IV is the last Holy Roman Emperor of the Hohenstaufen line. Beginning of the “Great Interregnum” in Germany from 1254 to 1273. 1254 Bitter struggle for the Imperial crown. During this period lawlessness prevails in Germany. Robber barons and brigands infest the country. There is no recognized king of Germany during this period. Manfred rules as regent in Sicily. 1254 Alexander IV. Pope. 1254-1261 Appearance in Paris of a work known as the “Eternal Gospel” consisting of the heretical writings of Joachim of Flora. 1254 Writings will be condemned in 1256. Louis IX, leaves Palestine and returns to France, on the death of his mother. 1254 Louis IX (b. 1214-d. 1270) King of France. Supports his Chaplain, Robert de Sorbonne, and founds the Paris School of Theology (later called the Sorbonne after his Chaplain). 1254 Founded as a college for masters of arts who intend to proceed on to a doctorate in Theology. Sixth Mongol Invasion of Korea. July 1254-Dec.1254 The Mongols under Jalairtai Qorchi launch another devastating invasion of Korea. Jalairtai takes 206,800 Koreans as prisoners. St. Philip Benizi (1233-1285). Italian. Joins the Servites at Monte Senario near Florence. 1254 Treaty between Henry III,King of England, and Alfonso X of Castile. 1254 Hungary takes control of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 1254 Utrect Cathedral. Holland. 1254-1382 Gothic style architecture. Theodore II Lascaris. Ruler of the Empire of Nicaea. 1254-1258 Birth of Marco Polo (1254-1324). 1254 First journey of the Polo brothers Nicolò Polo and Maffeo Polo (Venetian) to China. They are in the east 1255-1269. 1255 William of Rubruck, the envoy of Louis IX (b.1214-1270), King of France, is back in Cyprus. June 1255 King Louis IX had already returned to France in 1254. William of Rubruck is ordered by the Franciscan Order to the Franciscan house at Acre. Manfred, half-brother of Conrad IV, wins Southern Italy. 1255 Manfred makes himself King of the Two Sicilies (Sicily and Southern Italy). Henry III, King of England, accepts Sicily for his son Edmund. 1255 Knights of the Teutonic Order found the city of Königsberg. 1255 Hugh the Little is killed in the house of a Jew named Koppin. 1255 Leon Cathedral. Gothic. 1255-1303 Seventh Mongol invasion of Korea. Sept. 1255-June 1256 The Mongols begin attacking coastal islands. Korean people are defenseless. Paris Faculty of Arts incorporates into its curriculum all of the known writings of Aristotle. 1255 Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). Receives the Master of Theology degree at Paris. 1256 Begins teaching Theology in one of the two Dominican schools incorporated in the University of Paris. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). “De Veritate” (“On Truth”). 1256-1259 “De ente et essentia” (“On Being and Essence”). Begun 1250. 1256 “Hundred Years War” between Venice and Genoa. 1256 Pope Alexander IV. Founds the Augustinian Order from several groups of hermits. 1256 (Order of Augustine Hermits). Llewellyn of Wales sweeps the English from Wales. 1256 Arrival of the Carmelite Order at Oxford University in England. 1256 Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great), c.1206-1280. Travels to Rome in order to defend the mendicant orders against attacks made by William of St. Armour. 1256 Pope Alexander IV. Alarmed by a report of Thomas Aquinas of the widespread Averroism at Paris, he asks Albertus Magnus to write “On the Unity of the Intellect Against Averroës”. 1256 The teachings of Joachim of Flora (d. 1202) are condemned by the Catholic Church. 1256 “Las Siete Partidas”. 1256-1263 (“Laws of the Seven Parts”). Alfonso X of Castile writes the legal code that is the basis of Spanish jurisprudence. Louis IX (b.1214-d.1270), King of France. Imposes peace on Flanders. 1256 Lisbon is made the capital of Portugal. 1256 Hulago, brother of Mangu Khan (the third ruler of the Mongol Empire). Swarms through the Near East annihilating the Persian Assassin moslem sect, which had been spreading terror throughout the entire area for more than 150 years. 1256 St. Bonaventure (1221-1274). Italian bishop and theologian. Elected General of the Franciscan Order. February 2, 1257 He is thirty six years old. St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Bonaventure (Giovanni di Fidanza) both receive their Doctorate degrees in Theology at Paris. 1257 Death of St. Hyacinth of Poland (1185-1257). August 15, 1257 “Schloss” of Königsberg. Built as a fortress for the Knights of the Teutonic Order. 1257 Murder of the last Ayyubid sultan of Egypt. 1257 Llywelyn of Wales assumes the title Prince of Wales. 1257 Eighth Mongol invasion of Korea. May 1257-Oct. 1257 The Korean people are completely subjugated by the Mongols. Famine follows great “dearth” in England. Thousands perish. 1258 Genoa is defeated in the war with Venice. 1258 Provisions of Oxford. 1258 Henry III, King of England, is forced to accept a series of reforms imposed by the English barons. Manfred, half-brother of Conrad IV, and illegitimate son of Frederick II, is crowned King of Sicily at Palermo. 1258 Manfred rules 1258 until his death in 1266. Treaty of Corbeil. 1258 Louis IX, king of France, ends Aragon’s claims to Provence and Languedoc by yielding French claims to Barcelona and Roussillon. The Mongols under Hulago (also Hulagu) Khan enter Persia. 1258 Mongol conquest of Baghdad (Abbassid). Feb. 1258 Capture, sack, and destruction of Baghdad, the capital of the Moslem empire, a city of over one million Mohammedans, by the Mongols under Hulago Khan (1217- 1265), grandson of Gengis Khan. 60,000 of the inhabitants are killed by the Mongol horde. Conquest of the Empire of the Caliphate by the Mongols. Devastation of surrounding lands by the Mongols. The Mongols overwhelmingly defeat the Caliph of Baghdad. Al-Musta’sim is the last caliph of the Abbassid dynasty which had ruled since 750. The Abbassids were the leaders of the so-called “orthodox” Mohammedanism. Al-Mutsa’sim is trampled to death by horses. The Caliphate, established in 632, is destroyed. Hulago Khan, founds the Il-Khan dynasty in Persia. 1258 Khanate rule lasts from 1258 until 1353. The Persian empire is re-established under the rule of the Mongols. The Mongols pillage Hanoi. 1258 John IV Lascaris. Emperor of Nicaea. 1258-1261 Michael Palaeologus is Regent (1259-1261). Death of Saint Peter Nolasco (c.1189-1258), at Barcelona. Dec. 25, 1258 St. Bonaventure (1221-1274). Franciscan Order. “The Journey of the Mind to God.” Written. 1259 Nicola Pisano (ca. 1205-1278). Italian sculptor and architect. Marble Pulpit (hexagonal). Baptistry, Pisa. 1259-1260 Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). Summoned to Rome by Alexander IV as lecturer to the papal court (curia). He is also instructed to issue a corrected text of Aristotle’s works, which were known up until then, only in faulty Arabic texts, and also write a commentary. 1259 Llywelyn of Wales. Establishes peace between England and Wales. 1259 Treaty of Paris. 1259 Defines the extent of English possessions in France. Ends the century old war between the houses of Plantagenet and Capet. Kublai, Mongol leader, is elected Great Khan by his army at Shan-tu, in China. 1259 Kublai Khan will rule from 1259 until his death in 1294. Kublai Khan’s empire will reach from the Yellow River in China to the shores of the Danube River in eastern Europe, and from Siberia to the Persian Gulf. Death of Gonzalvus (Gonsalvo) of Amarante (1187-1259). Portuguese Dominican. January 10,1259 Appearance of first Flagellantes. 1259 First seen in Perugia in northern Italy and from there spread to Southern Germany (1259-1260). Battle of Ain Jalut. Sept. 1260 The Mamelukes defeat the Mongols. The Mongolians are defeated at Ain Jalut, Palestine. Repulsion and defeat of the Mongol attack on Egypt by the Turkish Mamaluke army led by Sultan Qutuz. Defeat and death of Hulago’s general Kitboga. The Mongol western advance is broken by the Mamelukes (mercenary slaves from the Black Sea region), who established military rule over Egypt (1250) until 1517. Egypt will remain an independent power until 1517, when it will finally fall to the Ottoman Turkish Empire. Chartres Cathedral is rebuilt (begun in 1194). 1260 Consecration of Chartres Cathedral. Cimabue (also known as Cenno di Pepe). Italian. “The Crucifixion”. Painting. 1260 Reign of Baybars (Baibars) I. Mameluke sultan of Egypt. 1260-1277 He first had Sultan Qutuz, the leader of the Mamaluke army, killed. Roger Bacon (1214-1292). Franciscan Order. First outlines the laws of reflection and refraction of light (optics). 1260 Bohemian-Hungarian Wars. 1260 Manfred. Overruns Tuscany. 1260 Becomes master of most of Italy. Brunetto Latini (c.1220-1294). Italian author, scholar, teacher, poet, orator, and encyclopedist. “Li livres dou tresor”. c.1260 Produces an encyclopedia of science, history, philosophy, etc. “Antichristus”. German Advent play. c.1260 Kublai Khan establishes the Yüan (Mongol) Dynasty (1260-1368) in China. 1260 Nicolò and Maffeo Polo move to Bokhara. 1260 They will remain here for three years. Bartholomew of Messina (Sicily). Translates the “Problemata physica”, written by the pseudo-Aristotle from Greek into Latin. 1260 William of Moerbeke. Begins the translation of the writings of Aristotle from Greek into Latin. 1260 Gerard Segarelli of Parma. Formulates the heretical doctrine of the Pseudo-Apostles. 1260 St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). “Commentary on Dionysius’ ‘On the Divine Names’”. 1260 Greeks from the Empire of Nicea (founded in 1206) launch an attack on the Latin Kingdom of Constantinople. 1261 The Byzantine Greeks recapture Constantinople from the Latins which held control since 1204. 1261 Restoration of Greek rule of Byzantine Empire by Greek army that overthrows the Roman Catholic Emperor Baldwin II. Collapse of the Latin Empire of Constantinople (originally formed as a result of the Fourth Crusade). Fall of Constantinople to Prince Michael VIII Paleologus of Nicea who restores Byzantine Empire as an independent state. Athens and other territories however still remain under European control. The Byzantine Empire will last until 1453 when it will be destroyed by the Ottoman Turkish Empire. Michael Paleologus VIII. Byzantine Emperor. 1261-1282 First ruler of the Palaeologus Byzantine Dynasty which will last from 1261 until the fall of Constantinople to the moslems in 1453. Urban IV. Pope. 1261-1264 Alphonso X of Castile (1221-1284). Wages war against the Mohammedans in Spain. 1261-1266 Thaddeus Florentinus. Teaches medicine at the University of Bologna. 1261 St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). Italian. “Expositio in Job ad litteram”. 1261-1264 Haakon IV, King of Norway. Secures the submission of Greenland. 1261 Mindaugas (c.1219-1263) of Lithuania falls back into the practice of Lithuanian paganism. 1261 Ottokar II of Bohemia obtains Styria. 1261 St. Urbain. Troyes, France. 1261-1275 Pisa Cathedral. ca.1261-1272 Greeks re-establish the Greek Byzantine church. 1262 Plague and famine in Ireland. 1262 Thousand perish. Haakon IV, King of Norway. Secures the submission of Iceland. 1262 St. Bonaventure. “The Life of Saint Francis of Assisi”. Written. 1263 Saint Thomas Aquinas. Attends the Chapter-General in London, England. 1263 “The Miracle of Bolsena” at the Church of Bolsena in Italy. 1263 Balliol College, Oxford founded. 1263 Norwegian invasion of Scotland by Haakon IV of Norway. 1263 The Norwegians however are driven out of Scotland. Battle of Largs. Oct. 2, 1263 Scottish under Alexander III of Scotland defeat Haakon IV, King of Norway. Magnus VI. King of Norway. 1263-1280 St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). Writes Hymns and Liturgical Compositions. “Pange, lingua, gloriosi corporis mysterium”. 1263 “Verbum supernum prodiens”. 1263 (“The Word of God Proceeding Forth”). Second Baron’s War of England (1264-1267). Outbreak of Civil War in England. 1264 Baron’s Rebellion is led by Simon de Montfort (1263- 1265). Caused by the refusal of Henry III, King of England, to abide by the Provisions of Oxford (1258). Henry III is forced to submit (1264). Mindaugas, the pagan ruler of Lithuania, is killed. 1263 Mise of Amiens. Jan. 1264 Louis IX, King of France, annuls the Provisions of Oxford. English Barons reject the Mise of Amiens. 1264 Renewal of fighting in the Second Barons’ War (1264-1267). St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). Composes the Mass and Office for the Feast of Corpus Christi. 1264 Includes the sequence “Lauda Sion Salvatorem” (“Praise, O Zion, thy Salvation”). St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). “Summa Contra Gentiles”. 1264 Written to convince Mohammedans, heretics, Jews, and all those that have still rejected Jesus Christ. Roger Bacon (1214-1294). Franciscan Order. “De computo naturali”. 1264 Battle of Lewes. 1264 Defeat and capture of Henry III, King of England, by English barons under Simon de Montfort. Simon de Montfort becomes the virtual ruler of England for fifteen months until he is finally killed in 1265. Severe famine and disease in Egypt. Thousands perish. 1264 Destruction of the Genoese fleet by the Venetians off Trapani, Sicily. 1264 Merton College, Oxford, founded. 1264 Parliament of Simon de Montfort. 1265 English Parliament meets for the first time under the leadership of Simon de Montfort. Model for the House of Commons. Battle of Evesham. Aug. 1265 Prince Edward, the son of Henry III, King of England, defeats the Barons and kills the rebel Simon de Montfort at Evesham. Restores Henry III to throne. Baronial resistance will end in 1267. St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). “De Potentia Dei” (“On the Power of God”). 1265-1267 Bohemia and Hungary are at war. 1265-1270 Roger Bacon (1214-1982). Franciscan Order. Describes a prototype of the magnifying glass. 1265 Guido de Foulques (French), becomes Pope. 1265 Takes the name Clement IV. Clement IV is Pope 1265-1268. Birth of Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) in Florence. 1265 Birth of Duns Scotus (c.1265-13058). 1265 Caesarea and the Castle of Arsouf (Arsuf) fall to Baibars (Mamelukes), the Sultan of Egypt. 1265 Nicola Pisano (c.1205-1278). Italian sculptor and architect. Begins the Arca di San Domenico at Bologna. 1265 Pisano is assisted by Fra Guglielmo Agnelli. Kublai Khan. Founds and builds Khanbalig, modern Peking, China and makes it his capital. c.1265 Cimabue (Cenno di Pepe). Italian. “Crucifix”. Painting at Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence. c.1265 It is 178” x 150”. Battle of Benevento. Feb. 26, 1266 The Pope asks for help from the French against Manfred of Sicily. Charles of Anjou (1226-1285), son of Louis VIII, and brother of Louis IX (1214-1290), King of France, defeats and kills Manfred, the ruler of Sicily, at Benevento, Italy. Charles of Anjou conquers Sicily and the Kingdom of Naples. Becomes King of the “Kingdom of the Two Sicilies”. Rules Sicily 1266-1285. Siger of Brabant (c.1235-c.1281), leader of the Averroistic movement (Averroism) in France, teaches at the University of Paris. 1266-1276 James I, the Conqueror, of Aragon. Enables Castile to recapture Murcia from the Moslems. 1266 Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Nicolo Polo and his brother Maffeo Polo. Italian. 1266 Make expedition to Constantinople, then east to the kingdom of Barka Khan. After one year, their return is blocked by war between Barka Khan and Hulagu Khan. The Polos journey east to Kublai Khan at Peking. They will return to Venice three years later. Birth of Giotto (1266-1337). 1266 Baibars defeats the Armenians. 1266 Baibars destroy their capital and takes 40,000 prisoners. St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). “De Spiritualibus Creaturis”. 1266-1269 (“On Spiritual Creatures”). Roger Bacon (1214-1294). Franciscan Order. Writes “Opus Maius” (“Larger work”). 1266 Prepared for Pope Clement IV. It is divided into seven treatises. (1) On ignorance and error (2) The relation between Theology and Philosophy (3) The study of foreign languages (4) On Mathematics (5) Perspective and Optics (6) Experimental science (observation and experimentation) (7) Moral philosophy Science and philosophy are to be the servants of theology. Alexander III. King of Scotland. Recaptures the Hebrides Islands from the Norwegians. 1266 Nicola Pisano (c.1205-1278) assisted by his son Giovanni Pisano (1240-1320), begins work on the pulpit of the cathedral at Siena (octagonal). 1266-1267 Raymond Lully (c.1232-1315), also called Ramon Lùll. Spanish. Conversion to Christianity. 1266 Thereafter devotes his life to the study of Arabic and opposing the ideas of Mohammedanism and particularly the ideas of Averroës (Averroism). Siege of Safed. 1266 Baibars (Baybars), the Sultan of Egypt, takes Safed. Siege lasted from June 13 to July 23, 1266. End of the Second Baron’s War (1264-1267) in England. 1267 6,000 total war dead. Louis IX (1214-1270), King of France. Begins preparation for another Crusade (1270). 1267 Baybars (Baibars) takes Jaffa. 1267 Kublai Khan begins construction of new capital at Peking. 1267 The Fall of Antioch. May 1268 The Mamelukes, the moslem rulers of Egypt and Syria, under Baibars (Baybars) I, capture the Latin principality of Antioch from the Christians. The great fortress of Antioch has been held by the Christians since 1098. The once great fortress will never flourish again. The Mameluke moslems kill or enslave all but the richest whom they ransom. The moslems destroy Antioch. Battle of Tagliacozzo. August 1268 Invasion of Italy by Conradin. Charles I of Anjou is threatened by a German army of the Holy Roman Empire. The invaders are led by Conradin, the son of the late Conrad IV, and Frederick, Duke of Austria. The two forces meet at Tagliacozzo in Central Italy. Charles I of Anjou defeats the invaders and captures both Conradin and Frederick. 1268 Conradin, the grandson of Frederick II, and Frederick, Duke of Austria, are both beheaded on the scaffold at Naples. 1268 Conradin is the last of the Hohenstaufen Dynasty which had dominated Germany and the Holy Roman Empire for 130 years since 1138. Angevin conquest of Naples. Founding of the Angevin Kingdom of Naples and Sicily. 1268 Arrival of the Augustinian Order at Oxford University, England. 1268 There is no pope. 1268-1271 Devastation of the city of Cieilia, Asia Minor by earthquake. 1268 60,000 people are killed. Mongol conquest of the Sung Empire in China by Kublai Khan, grandson of Jenghiz Khan. 1268-1279 Death of Beatrice of Nazareth (1200-1268). Cistercian Order. 1268 Flemish stigmatica, ecstatica. St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). "Commentary on Physics". 1268 "Commentary on Metaphysics". 1268-1272 Nicolo and Maffeo, the older Polos, return to Acre (April). 1269 They leave letters of inquiry to the Pope from Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler. They return to Venice after their nine year journey to the east. St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). "De Virtutibus" (“On the Virtues in General”). 1269-1272 "Expositio in Evangelium S. Matthaei". 1269-1272 "Expositio in Evangelium Joannis". 1269-1272 "Expositio in S. Pauli Apostoli epistolas". (Undated and incomplete). "De Perfectione Vitae Spiritualis". 1269-1270 St. Thomas Aquinas. 1269 Recalled from Rome to Paris for three years where a debate is going on between the Thomists, the Averroists, and the Augustinians (which included most of the Franciscans). Thomas engages in a sharp debate over whether two truths - faith and reason - can be contradictory. He maintains that the two truths cannot contradict. His insistence that within faith, reason can operate by its own laws brings down the wrath of the Augustinian group. Thomas Aquinas takes the position of anti-Averroism (from Averroës). St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). “De anima” ("On the Soul"). 1269-1270 “Quaestiones Disputate" (“Debated Questions”). 1269-1272 "On Evil". 1269-1272 Ottokar of Bohemia acquires Carinthia and Carniola from Hungary. 1269 Inquisition is established in the kingdom of Sicily under Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis IX, King of France. 1269 Nicola Pisano (c.1205-1278). Commissioned by Charles of Anjou to erect the abbey and convent of La Scorgola in commemoration of the victory of Tagliacozzo (see 1268) which occurred in the neighboring valley. 1269 Petrus Peregrinus (Peter the Pilgrim). 1269 While he is with the Angevin army at the siege of Lucera dei Pagani in Calabria, he writes a treatise on magnetism. "Epistola Petri Peregrini de Maricourt ad Syerum de Foucaucourt, militem, de magnete". (“Letter on the magnet, of Peter the Pilgrim of Maricourt to Sygerus of Foucaucourt, Soldier”). He advocates observation and the experimental method. He discusses the operation of the magnet in the attraction of iron, the magnetization of other objects, and the finding of the true north. St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). 1270 "De Unitate Intellectus Contra Averroistas." (“On the Unicity of the Intellect Against the Averroists"). "De aeternitate mundi contro murmurantes". 1270-1272 Ordination of St. Nicholas of Tolentino (1245-1305) at Cingoli. c.1270 Uppsala Cathedral. Sweden. ca.1270 Cimabue (Cenno di Pepe). Italian. c.1270 "Crucifix". Panel painting at Arezzo. 134 3/8" X 104". Guido da Siena. Italian. "Annunciation ". Panel painting. c.1270 The propositions of Siger of Brabant are first formally condemned by the Roman Catholic Church. 1270 The Eighth Crusade. 1270 Second Crusade of Louis IX, King of France. Louis IX, King of France, journeys to Tunis, North Africa. He succumbs to typhoid before Tunis together with a large part of his army. Death of St. Louis IX (b.1214-d.1270) of France, near Tunis, North Africa. August 25, 1270 Louis IX ruled for forty four years. With the death of Louis IX, King of France, the Crusaders are turned back. 1270 10,000 total war dead. Philip III, the Bold (b.1245-d.1285), King of France. 1270-1285 Philip III is the son of Louis IX (b.1214-d.1270). Public debate before the professors and students of Paris, between Thomas Aquinas and John Peckham. 1270 Henry I. King of Navarre. 1270-1274 Witelo. "Perspectiva" (“On Perspective”). 1270 Treatise on Optics. Deals with reflection, refraction, and geometrical optics. Gregory X. Pope. 1271-1276 Second journey of Nicolò and Maffeo Polo to China (1271-1295). 1271 Marco Polo (age 17) leaves Venice with his father, Nicolò Polo and his uncle, Maffeo Polo. They begin their journey through Asia to Cathay (China) and other parts of Asia and the far east to visit the Mongol kingdom of Kublai Khan. Marco Polo is in China from 1271-1292. The Polos will return to Venice in 1295. Fall of the fortress of the Knights Hospitaler of Krak de Chevaliers, to the Mohammedan forces. 1271 Inundation followed by famine and disease in Canterbury, England. 1271 Thousands perish. Meliore di Jacopo (fl.1255-1285). "Jesus Christ, the Redeemer, with the Virgin Mary, St. Peter the Apostle, St. John the Apostle, and St. Paul of Targus”. 1271 Panel painting (dated 1271). Pestilence and famine throughout Ireland. Thousands perish. 1271 Arrival of Prince Edward, the heir to the English throne (later Edward I) at Acre on Crusade. May 9, 1271 He will remain in the Holy Land from 1271 to 1272. Acquisition of Toulouse by the French crown. 1271 Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX, King of France (Charles I, King of Naples and Sicily) invades Greece and Albania. 1271 Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler. Founds the Yüan (Mongol) Dynasty in China. 1271 Yüan Dynasty rules 1271-1368. St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). “De Unione Verbi Incarnati”. 1271-1272 (”On the Union of the Incarnate Word”). Charles I, King of Naples. Crosses the Adriatic Sea and occupies Durres. 1272 Proclaimed King of Albania. Ramon Lùll (c.1232-1315). Spanish. "Libro de contemplacio en Deu". 1272 ("Book of the Contemplation of God"). An encyclopedia of theology. Master of St. Francis (name unknown). "Crucifix ". Panel painting dated 1272. 1272 Ladislaus. King of Hungary. 1272-1290 Construction begins on the Cathedral of Beauvais. 1272 Death of Henry III, King of England. 1272 He is succeeded by his eldest son, Edward. Beginning of the reign of Edward I, “Longshanks”, King of England. Edward I will be crowned in 1274. Rules from 1272 until his death in 1307. St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). 1272 Leaves Paris and goes to Naples in order to establish a Dominican house at the new university. Death of Berthold of Ratisbon (c.1210-1272), famous preacher of the Franciscan Order. Dec. 14, 1272 St. Thomas Aquinas. "In psalmos Davidis expositio". 1272 Rudolph I, Count of Hapsburg, is elected king of the Germans. Oct. 1273 Founds the Hapsburg Dynasty of Germany. Rudolph is the first of the Habsburg line of emperors. He is never crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the pope, however. Rules as German king and uncrowned Holy Roman Emperor 1273-1291. End of the "Great Interregnum" (since 1254) in the Holy Roman Empire. There was no recognized king of Germany during this period. 1273 Erik II Magnusson. King of Norway. 1273-1299 St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). 1273 Completes the “Summa Theologiae”. Begun in 1265. (“Credo ut intelligam”). Raymond Lully also known as Ramon Lùll (c.1232-1315). Spanish. “Libro del Gentil”. 1273 A Christian, a Mohammedan, and a Jew expound on the chief doctrines of their respective religions. Second Council of Lyons (Fourteenth General Church Council). Called by Pope Gregory X. 1274 Envoys of the Byzantine Empire swear assent to the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church and to papal supremacy in the name of Byzantine Emperor Michael XIII. This will prove to be only temporary. Death of St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). March 7, 1274 He is on his way to the Fourteenth General Church Council at Lyons. Death of St. Bonaventure (b.1221-d.1274) at Lyons, while the Council of Lyons is still in session. July 15, 1274 First Mongol invasion of Japan at the order of Kublai Khan. 1274 The Japanese withstand the first Mongol naval attempts. The Mongols fail and withdraw. Peter di Morone (1210-1296). Receives approval for his order of monks, the Celestines. 1274 Edward I, King of England, is crowned at Westminster. 1274 Coppo di Marcovaldo and his son Salerno. “Crucifix” with six scenes. Panel painting. 1274-1275 Niccola Pisano (b.1205-1278). Italian sculptor and architect. 1274 Begins the fountain in Perugia. Finished by his son Giovanni Pisano. The 24 statues of this fountain are ascribed to Niccola. The three Polos arrive at Peking, China, at the court of Kublai Khan, the ruler of the Mongols. 1275 St. Sebaldus Church. Nuremberg, Germany. Completed. 1275 Was begun in 1225. Marco Polo (1254-1324). Enters into the service of Kublai Khan for the next seventeen years. During this period Marco Polo travels throughout Asia in the service of Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler. 1275-1292 Building of the walls of Carcassonne. c.1275 St. Peter Master. Italian. Saint Peter Altarpiece. Panel painting. 1275-1285 Includes three scenes from the life of Jesus Christ and three scenes from the life of St. Peter the Apostle. Death of St. Raymond of Peñafort (1175-1275). January 6, 1275 Rudolph I of Germany. Recognizes papal sovereignty in Southern Italy. 1275 Magnus I. King of Sweden. 1275-1290 Earliest extant maritime compass. 1275 Ramon Lùll (c.1232-1315). Spanish. “Ars Magna”. 1275 This is his first presentation of his all embracing system of logic. William of Saliceto. (1210-1277). “Chirurgia”. 1275 German-Bohemian Wars. 1276 Result of the refusal of Ottokar of Bohemia to acknowledge Rudolph I as emperor of Germany. Rudolph I of Germany outlaws Ottokar of Bohemia. June 1276 Ottokar of Bohemia submits to Rudolph I of Germany and keeps only Bohemia and Moravia. Nov. 1276 Conquest of Austria by the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph I. 1276-1278 Rudolph I is the founder of the Hapsburg Dynasty that will rule Austria until 1918. Rudolph I of Hapsburg, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, attempts to assert feudal rights in Switzerland. 1276 Edward I, King of England. Invades Wales and defeats the Welsh Prince Llwelyn ap Gruffydd. 1276 Conquest of Wales by Edward I, King of England. 1276-1284 Capture of Hangchow (Lin’an), the capital of the Sung Dynasty in China, by the Mongols. 1276 France is at war with the Kingdom of Castile. 1276 Death of Pope Gregory X. 1276 Abandonment of the Ninth Crusade. John XXI. Pope. 1276-1277 174 Cathar heretics all refuse recantation. 1276 They are burned at Sirmione, Italy. Roger Bacon (c.1214-1292). Franciscan Order. Accused of heresy. 1276 Pedro III, the Great. King of Aragon. 1276-1285 Baybars (Baibars) dies. 1277 He is succeeded by Qalawun. Roger Bacon (c.1214-1292). Franciscan Order. He is imprisoned for heresy. 1277-1292 Condemnation of the Latin Averroists (Averroism). 1277 Condemnation of 219 propositions of Siger of Brabant (c.1240-1284) by Etienne Tempier, Bishop of Paris. 1277 Siger of Brabant propounded the doctrine of the two truths, arguing that reason and revelation, t hough both true, are often mutually contradictory. Siger of Brabant was an Averroist (Averroism). For example: Proposition 152: “Theology rests upon fables.” Proposition 175: “Christian Revelation is an obstacle to learning.” Siger of Brabant denied the immortality of the soul. Siger denied the Creation in the book of Genesis in the Old Testament. Claimed the eternity of the world. That is to say, that the world always existed. Denied Free Will and the moral responsibility of the individual. The teachings of Siger of Brabant are condemned. Condemnation of propositions of Boethius of Dacia (Danish or Swedish). Boethius of Dacia was an Averroist (Averroism). 1277 Flood. Friesland, Holland. 1277 A great flood forms the Dollert Sea. Founding of the fortified cathedral of Albi as a citadel celebrating the triumph of Christianity over Albigensianism (the Albigensian Heresy). 1277 Arnolfo di Cambio (c.1245-1301). Italian architect and sculptor. “Charles I of Anjou”. Sculpture. 1277 Rhuddlan Castle. Wales. 1277-1282 The first of Edward I's castles built during his conquest of North Wales. Ottokar (Ottocar) II of Bohemia takes up arms against Rudolph I. 1278 Battle of the Marchfeld. Aug. 26, 1278 Rudolph I, Holy Roman Emperor, defeats and kills Ottokar II of Bohemia at Dürnkrut, Marchfeld. Ottokar is succeeded by his son as Wenceslas II. Wenceslas II is under German regency, until 1290. Wenceslas II of Bohemia. 1278-1305 St. Maria Novella, Florence, Italy. 1278-1350 Gothic style church built by the Dominican Order. Genoese vessels begin to use the sea routes from the Mediterranean Sea via Gibraltar and the Atlantic Ocean to Bruges, between Calais and Antwerp. 1278 Death of Saint Zita (1218-1278). April 27, 1278 Invention of the glass mirror. c.1278 John Peckham. Archbishop of Canterbury. 1279-1292 Kublai Khan. Conquers Southern China and ends the Sung (Song) Dynasty (960-1279). After massacring several millions of Chinese, Kublai Khan completes the Mongol conquest of China. 1279 Kublai Khan becomes emperor of China. The Yüan (Mongol) dynasty will rule China 1279-1368. Statute of Mortmain. 1279 In England, royal permission is required for gifts of land to the church. Diniz (b.1261-d.1325), son of Alfonso III. King of Portugal. 1279-1325 Rudolph I (Habsburg) of Germany. Surrenders his claims to Sicily and the Papal States. 1279 Death of Albertus Magnus (German). Albert the Great (1206-1280). 1280 Albert was one of the first and among the greatest of natural scientists. His knowledge of religion, philosophy, psychology, languages, history, biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, optics, geography, mathematics, medicine, zoology, botany, education, anatomy, and physiology was so vast that he was frequently accused by his enemies of practicing magic. During his life, Albert the Great wrote profusely on the Old Testament and New Testament, Theology, Metaphysics, Logic, Christian philosophy, Christian psychology, and mathematics. Cimabue (Cenno di Pepe). Italian. Maesta: “Enthroned Madonna and Child in Majesty with Angels and Prophets”. ca.1280-1285 Panel painting. 427cm x 280cm. St. Maria Sopra Minerva. Rome. 1280 Church of the Dominican Order built in the Gothic style of architecture. Heiligenkreuz Abbey. Austria. ca.1280 Cistercian church in the Gothic style. Foundation of University College, Oxford by a legacy from William of Durham, who had been a master of Paris. c.1280 Eric II. King of Norway. 1280-1299 The Asen Dynasty in Bulgaria (founded in 1186) is terminated. 1280 Bulgaria becomes subject to Serbs, Greeks, and Mongols. Walter de Odington. “De Speculatione Musices”. c.1280 Musical treatise. Pope Martin IV. 1281-1285 Martin IV will excommunicate Michael Paleologus. The brief union effected with the Byzantine Church in 1274 is ended. Second Mongol invasion of Japan. 1281 A Mongol fleet of 160,000 Mongols is destroyed with the help of typhoon (kamikaze = “winds of the gods”). Prevents the Mongol invasion of Japan. Mar Yabalaha, pilgrim from Peking to Jerusalem, is elected patriarch. 1281 Famine throughout Poland. 1281 Thousands perish. Llewellyn ap Gruffydd revolts against the English in Wales. 1282 Battle of Radnor. 1282 Llewellyn ap Gruffydd, Welsh prince, is killed fighting Edward I, King of England, during the revolt of Wales. 6,000 total war dead during the English conquest of Wales. The head of the Welsh leader, Llewelyn II, is impaled on a lance and placed on the Tower of London. Edward I will also execute David, brother of Llewellyn, the following year. The English conquest of Wales is complete. The Sicilian Vespers. March 30, 1282 Revolt in Sicily against French (Angevin) rule. Begins with the massacre of the French population in Sicily. All Frenchman are driven out of Sicily. Sicily passes to Peter III of Aragon. Pedro III of Aragon invades Sicily. 1282 Sicily comes under the rule of the Spanish House of Aragon. St. Cécile Cathedral, Albi, France. 1282-1390 Gothic style cathedral with fortress type appearance. The House of Hapsburg gains possession of Austria. 1282 Austria is made a heredity possession. Andronicus II. Ruler of the Byzantine Empire. 1282-1328 Andronicus II, Byzantine Emperor, rejects the brief union of the Eastern Church with the Western Church. 1282 Completion of the conquest of pagan Prussia that was begun in 1226 by the Knights of the Teutonic Order. 1283 Robert Bruce and John Balliol contend for the crown of Scotland. 1283 Mongol army briefly invades Champa, now a part of Vietnam. 1283 Mongols are forced to withdraw due to epidemics. Giovanni Pisano (1240-1320). Italian sculptor. Sculptures on the façade of Siena Cathedral. 1284-1298 Statute of Wales. 1284 Wales is annexed to England after the conquest of Wales by Edward I, King of England, in 1282. Wales will be formally joined to England in 1536. Pisa is nearly destroyed by the Genoese. 1284 Sancho III. King of Castile. 1284-1295 Bernard Guidonis (Bernard Gui). French. Teaches Logic at Brives. 1284 Philip III (b.1245-d.1285), King of France, dies during the retreat from an unsuccessful attack on the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon. 1285 He is succeeded by his son Philip IV, the Fair (b.1268-d.1314). Philip IV rules France 1285-1314. The Mamelukes retake Marqab. 1285 Henry II. Last King of Jerusalem. 1285-1291 Death of St. Philip Benizi (1233-1285). August 22, 1285 Alfonso III, King of Aragon. 1285-1291 Honorius IV. Pope. 1285-1287 Duccio di Buoninsegna (d. 1319). Italian. “Rucellai Madonna”. Panel painting. 1285 Ramon Lùll (1232-1315). Spanish. “Liber Tartari et Christiani”. 1285 A Tartar questions a Christian, a Mohammedan, and a Jew on what they believe. Margaret, the “Maid of Norway” (b.1283-d.1290) becomes child Queen of Scotland (1286-1290). 1286 Margaret is in succession to Alexander III, her grandfather. Arghun (Argun), the Khan of Persia, dispatches an embassy to Pope Honorius IV. 1286 From here the embassy goes to see Edward I, King of England, and Philip IV, King of France. Arghun will send a total of four embassies to the west. The 2nd, 1287-1288, the 3rd, 1289 and the 4th in 1291. Flood. Holland. 1286 The entire country on both sides of the Zuyder-Zee is submerged under water. Number of thousands dead is unknown. Kublai Khan with 260,000 cavalry and 100,000 infantry meets Nayan, his uncle, with 400,000 horsemen in battle. Kublai Khan defeats Nayan. Nayan is captured and executed. 1286 John of Monte Corvino (1246-1328). Franciscan Order. Sent with a band of missionaries to the east. 1287 He returns with letters from the Khan of Persia in 1289. He is at once sent back by the Pope. Duccio di Buoninsegna. Oculus window. Stained glass. Siena Cathedral. 1287-1288 The Mamelukes under Qalawun take Lattakieh. 1287 Flood. Salandria. Fifteen islands are submerged by the sea. 16,000 perish. 1287 Rudolf I. Proclaims Public Peace at the Diet of Würzburg. 1287 Kublai Khan and the Mongols invade Burma. 1287 The Mongols destroy the Burmese capital, Pagan. Osman I (Othman, Ottoman), b.1259-d.1326, son of Ertogrul. 1288 Will declare himself emir (1299), leader of Ottoman Turks. Osman I rules 1288-1326. Osman I is the founder of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. Reign of Osman (Othman I), b.1259-d.1326. 1288-1326 Founding of the Ottoman Turkish Empire by Osman I. Osman I founds the Ottoman Turkish Empire in northwest Anatolia by absorbing neighboring states as the strength of the Seljuk Turks is declining. Othman I lays foundation of Ottoman Turkish control in Asia Minor. Beginning of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. The Ottoman Turkish Empire will last from 1288 until 1922. Nicholas IV. Pope. 1288-1292 Duccio. Italian. Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, Italy. 1288-1309 Crusader-Turkish Wars. 1289-1291 Fall of Tripoli to the Moslems led by Qalawun. April 26, 1289 Tripoli, in Lebanon, which had been in Frankish hands since 1109 falls on April 26, 1289. All male Christians are killed. Females and children are sold into slavery. The moslems destroy Tripoli. Siena Cathedral. Italy. 1289-1377 Founding of the University of Montpellier. 1289 Giovanni Pisano (1240-1320). Italian sculptor and architect. Monument of Pope Urban IV at Perugia, Italy. c. 1289 Edward I, King of England (son of Henry III). Expels all Jews from English domains. 1290 The Jews will return however c. 1648. Death of Margaret, the Maid of Norway (b.1283-1290). 1290 Edward I, King of England, is asked to arbitrate among thirteen claimants to the throne of Scotland. 1290 Edward I supports the claims of John de Baliol. His choice is rejected. Outbreak of civil war caused by the struggle for succession in Scotland following the death of Margaret, the Maid of Norway. Andrew III. King of Hungary. 1290-1301 Conquest of Semigallia by the Knoghts of the Teutonic Order of Livonia. 1290 Orvieto Cathedral. Italy. 1290-1600 Giovanni Pisano (1240-1320). Italian sculptor and architect. Shrine of San Donato at Arezzo. c.1290 Founding of the University of Lisbon in Portugal. 1290 Founded by Diniz, King of Portugal. Diniz ruled 1279-1325. Murder of Kaikobad, Sultan of Delhi. He is succeeded by Jalaluddin. 1290 Earthquake. Chihli, China. Over 100,000 dead. Sept. 27, 1290 “Livonian Rhymed Chronicle”. c.1290 (“Livländische Reimchronik”). A history of the Livonian crusades. The author is unknown. Death of Rudolf I of Hapsburg. 1291 Four Forest Canons form a league against the Hapsburgs and begin the struggle for the independence of Switzerland. 1291 Switzerland will not become an independent state, however, until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. John of Montecorvino. Franciscan Order. Sets out from Tauris, a city in Persia, for Khanbalik. 1291 He first proceeds to India (1291). After traversing parts of India, he will arrive at Khanbalik in 1293. He will establish a Christian mission in the capital fo the Mongol Empire. The Fall of Acre (now Akko, Israel). May 18, 1291 Acre is the last Christian stronghold, in the Holy Land. 160,000 Egyptian Mamelukes (Mohammedan) under Malik-al-Ashraf defeat the defenders of Acre. End of Christian presence in the Near East. Last Christian Crusaders are driven from the Middle East by the Mohammedans. The Knights of the Teutonic Order move their headquarters from Acre in the Holy Land, to Venice. 1291-1309 Israel comes under the rule of the Mamelukes. 1291-1517 The Mamelukes will rule Israel until the year 1517. End of the Crusades. 1291 The Knights of St. John of Jerusalem and the Templar Order move their headquarters from Acre to the island of Cyprus. End of the Era of the Crusaders (1095-1291). Crusader-Turkish Wars (1289-1291) end. 1291 Over 25,000 total war dead. James II. King of Aragon. 1291-1327 Doria and Vivaldo. Genoese. Set out to find a route to India by sea. They never return and nothing is known of their explorations. 1291 Pietro Cavallini. Italian. “The Last Judgement”. Fresco painting. c.1291-1295 Gaikhatu (Gaykhatu) Khan. 1291-1295 The fifth ruler of the Il khanate. He will be killed in 1295. Lack of rain causes terrible famine in Delhi, India. 1291 Thousands perish. Adolf of Nassau (b.1255-d.1298) is elected king of the Germans in order to prevent the crown from becoming heredity Hapsburg title. 1292 Adolf of Nassau, Holy Roman Emperor 1292-1298. Marco Polo (1254-1324). Marco Polo begins the long return journey to Europe via Persia with his father Nicolò Polo and uncle Maffeo Polo. 1292 They are laden with rubies, diamonds, and emeralds. They will arrive in Venice 1295. Edward I, King of England. Supports the claims of John de Baliol in Scotland (since 1290). 1292 John de Baliol is made King of Scotland. John de Baliol. King of Scotland. 1292-1296 Death of Pope Nicholas IV (Pope: 1288-1292). 1292 The Cardinals cannot settle on a new pope for two years. The Mongols send a naval expedition to Java. 1292 They are repulsed in 1293. Death of Benvenuta Bojani (1254-1292). 1292 Stigmatica, ecstatica. St. Stephen’s Chapel. Westminster, London. 1292 Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). Italian. “La Vita Nuova”. Poetry. 1292-1294 Raymond Lully (c. 1232-1315). Spanish. Crosses to Tunis in order to assist in the conversion of the Moslem. Complete destruction of the city of Carlisle, England by a terrible fire. 1292 Death of Roger Bacon (c.1214-1292). 1292 Arrival of John of Montecorvino (1246-1328), first Christian missionary in China (1293-1328). 1293 He left Persia in 1291. Al-Malik an-Nasir. Sultan of Egypt. 1293-1341 Anglo-Gascon fleet defeats the French. 1293 Philippe IV, King of France, seizes Gascony. Devastation of the city of Kamakura, Japan by earthquake. 1293 30,000 are killed. Celestine V (eighty four years old), a Benedictine hermit living on Monte Morone in the Abruzzi, is forced to be the next Pope. July 1294 Celestine V (1210-1296). Celestine resigns after five months. Dec. 1294 His successor confines him to prison, where he dies in 1296. Rebellion of Wales. 1294 Papacy of Pope Boniface VIII. 1294-1303 War between Philip IV, King of France, and Edward I of England. 1294-1303 Diniz, King of Portugal, signs a treaty with Edward I, King of England. 1294 This is a first of a series of English-Portuguese pacts. Siamese state acknowledges Mongol supremacy. 1294 Death of Kublai Khan, ruler of the Mongols. 1294 Santa Croce, Florence. Begun. 1294 Franciscan church begun by the architect Arnolfo di Cambio. Will be completed 1442. Conversion from Mongol paganism to Christianity of the Mongol prince Öngut Körguz as a result of his conversations with Giovanni de Montecorvino (1246-1328). 1294 Terrible harvest in England causes thousands to perish. 1295 Great “dearth” in Ireland. Thousands perish. 1295 “Model Parliament” of Edward I, King of England. 1295 First representative English Parliament. Grants money for French and Scottish wars. Beginnings of the House of Commons. Marco Polo (1254-1324). Arrives in Venice with his father Nicolò Polo and his uncle Maffeo. 1295 They had been away from Italy for 24 years. John de Baliol of Scotland forms an alliance with France in an attempt to end English control in Scotland. July 1295 Franco-Scottish alliance. 1295-1296 French fleet attacks Dover. 1295 Ferdinand IV (1285-1312). King of Castile. 1295-1312 Raymond Lùll (c. 1232-1315). Spanish. “Arbre de Sciencia”. 1295 (“The Tree of Science”). Issued at Rome. An encyclopedic work covering sixteen sciences. Temur Oljaitu (Ch’eng Tsung), grandson of Kublai Khan, is the second emperor of the Yüan Dynasty (Emperor of China). 1295-1307 Mahmud Ghazan (b.1271-d.1304). 7th ruler of the Mongol Empire’s Il Khanate. 1295-1304 Mahmud Ghazan is the first Mongol ruler to convert to Mohammedanism. He will first make Islam the religion of Persia. Boniface VIII (Pope: 1294-1303). “Clericis Laicos”. Papal bull. 1296 Written in response to the taxes imposed by the kings of France and England on the Church in their lands. The money collected from the taxes is used by the kings to pay for their foreign wars. The bull prohibits the payment of the taxes by the Catholic Church to the secular power. Conflict between Pope Boniface VIII and Philip IV, King of France, over papal powers in France (will continue until 1303). 1296 Edward I, King of England, opposes Boniface VIII’s “Clericis Laicos”. 1296 The Almohads vanish from history. 1296 They are replaced by another dynasty, the Marinids. Giotto (1266-1337). Called to Assisi by Giovanni de Mura the general of the Franciscan Order. He is to paint 28 scenes from the life of St. Francis of Assisi. 1296 Giotto (1266-1337). Paintings for the Upper Church of St. Francis Assisi in Pisa. c.1296-1300 Includes “St. Francis of Assisi receiving the Stigmata”. Predella: “The Vision of Pope Innocent III”. “The Approval of the Franciscan Order”. “St. Francis Preaching to the Birds”. “The Miracle of the Spring”. Panel Paintings. Arnolfo di Cambio (1245-1301). Italian architect. Florence Cathedral is begun under the architect Arnolfo di Cambio. 1296 John de Baliol of Scotland renounces his fealty to England. 1296 Battle of Dunbar. April 27, 1296 Edward I, King of England, marches his English army to Scotland. Because of the Franco-Scottish alliance (1295-1296), Edward I, King of England, invades Scotland and crushes John de Balliol, King of Scotland, at the Battle of Dunbar. Edward I, King of England, annexes Scotland and claims the throne of Scotland. Edward I takes the Stone of Scone (Scottish coronation stone) to Westminster. The Scots however will continue to rebel against English rule. John de Balliol abdicates the crown of Scotland. Goes into exile. July 1296 Continued war between England and Scotland. 1296-1314 Frederick II, brother of James II of Aragon. King of Sicily. 1296-1337 Murder of Jalaluddin, Sultan of Delhi. July 1296 He is succeeded by Ala-ud-Din Khilji. Edward I, King of England. Invades northern France. 1297 Edward I of England. Outlaws the clergy in England for refusing tax payments. 1297 William Wallace (c.1272-1305), Scottish knight. Leads the rebellion of Scotland against English rule. May 1297 Beginning of the disagreement between Pope Boniface VIII and the Colonna family. 1297 Boniface VIII crushes the forces of Jacopo and Pietro Colonna, razes the city of Palestrina to ruin, and sends the Colonna faction into exile. 1297 Battle of Stirling Bridge. Sept. 11, 1297 50,000 English under John de Warrenne, the Earl of Surrey, are defeated by Scottish troops led by William Wallace at Stirling Bridge. Mongols receive homage from Burma. 1297 Delhi. 1297 (First Mongol Invasion of India). Kuttugh Khan with 200,000 Mongols defeats 300,000 Delhi Moslems with 2,700 elephants, under Ala-ud-Din Khilji, the Sultan of Delhi. Death of St. Margaret of Cortona (1247-1297). February 22, 1297 Pestilence and famine in Scotland. 1297 Thousands perish. Moas, giant birds of New Zealand become extinct. 1297 Giovanni Pisano (1240-1320). Italian sculptor and architect. 1297-1301 Marble Pulpit. Sant’Andrea, Pistoia, Italy. Depicts the “Massacre of the Innocents” and the “Crucifixion”. Marco Polo (1254-1324). Begins to write about his travels and experiences throughout Asia in his “Book of Various Experiences”. 1298 Boniface VIII. “Liber Sextus” of the Decretals is issued. 1298 Palazzo Vecchio. Florence. Begun. 1298 Will be completed in 1344. Battle of Falkirk. July 22, 1298 Edward I, King of England, defeats the Scottish army led by William Wallace (c.1272-1305) at the Battle of Falkirk, Scotland. Edward I of England reconquers Scotland. William Wallace and a few survivors take refuge in the nearby woods. Bristol Cathedral. England. 1298-1330 Barcelona Cathedral. Spain. Begun. 1298 Completed 1450. Food scarcity, famine, and disease in England. 1298 Thousands perish. Giotto (1266-1337). Italian. Navicella mosaic. c.1298 Holy Roman Emperor Adolphus of Nassau is dethroned by electors. June 1298 Adolphus of Nassau is defeated, and killed at the battle of Göllheim. July 1298 He is succeeded by Albert I of Austria as Holy Roman Emperor. Albert I rules 1298-1308. Death of Mechtildis (Mechtilde) of Helfta. Ecstatica. November 19, 1298 Marienkirche at Stralsund, East Germany. 1298 Jacopone da Todi. 1298-1303 In prison for writing an attack directed against Pope Boniface VIII. He is released the year of the death of Boniface (1303). Haakon V, Magnusson. King of Norway. 1299-1319 Giotto is summoned to Rome by Pope Boniface VIII in order to work in the Lateran Basilica. 1299 Persia is ravaged by famine, pestilence, and disease. 1299 Thousands perish. Osman I (1259-1326). Leader of the Ottoman Turks since 1288, declares himself emir. 1299 Continues his rule until his death in 1326. Invasion of the Sultanate of Delhi, India by the Mongols. 1299 Pope Boniface VIII. Is able to secure a truce during the war between Edward I, King of England, and Philippe IV, King of France. 1299 Treaty between France and Germany. 1299 Treaty between Venice and the Turks, and France and Germany. 1299 Alliance of Albert I and Philip IV, King of France. Dec. 1299 Battle of Curzola. Sept. 1299 (Part of the Venetian-Genovese Wars). Genoese defeat the Venetians in a sea battle at Curzola off the Dalmatian coast. Palazzo Vecchio. Florence. Built. 1299-1301 14th Century Gerard Sagarelli is burned in Parma, Italy as a heretic by the Dominican Inquisition. 1300 His successor as leader of the Pseudo-Apostles is Dulcinus Novariensis. Duccio di Buoninsegna. Triptych: “The Virgin Mary and Child with Saints.” ca.1300 Pope Boniface VIII. Proclaims the first Jubilee Year. 1300 John Duns Scotus (c.1265-1308). Teaching at Oxford University, England. 1300-1302 Perna Church. Finland. 1300-1400 Earliest known European reference to the manufacture of gunpowder. 1380 Vincennes Castle. France. 1300-1400 Philippe IV, King of France, occupies Flanders. Jan. 1300 Wenceslas II of Bohemia is elected King of Poland. 1300 Rules 1300-1305. Meister Eckhart is teaching in Paris. 1300-1303 Also 1312-1314. Building of “St. Mary the Virgin”. Oxford, England. 1300-1498 St. Mary’s Church. Sigtuna, Sweden. 1300-1400 Zemen Monastery. Bulgaria. c.1300-1390 Typifies the Christian art of the Second Bulgarian Empire which lasted until the Ottoman Turkish conquest of 1396. Death of Ida of Louvain (d.1300). Cisterian Order. 1300 Stigmatica, ecstatica. Pope Boniface VIII. Bull “Ausculta fili.” 1301 Conflict between Boniface VIII and Philip IV, King of France, begins. Philip IV, King of France. Annexation of Flanders. 1301 Edward I, King of England. Names his son (later Edward II), Prince of Wales. He is the first English heir to be so designated. 1301 Death of Andrew III, King of Hungary. 1301 Last of the Árpád Dynasty (896-1301). Wenceslaus of Bohemia (b.1289-d.1306). King of Hungary. 1301-1305 Battle of Bapheus (aka Baphion). July 27, 1302 Osman I, founder of the Ottoman Turkish Empire, defeats the Byzantines at the Battle of Baphaion. Philip IV, King of France. Calls, for the first time, the Estates General (council of nobles) in France (1302-1303), in connection with his dispute with Pope Boniface VIII. 1302 Anglo-Scottish truce during the English-Scottish Wars (1296-1305). 1302 Vesuvius. Ischia, dormant for over 1400 years, is activated by eruption. 1302 Revolt of Flanders against France. May 1302 Called the Matins of Bruges. Beginning of the French-Flemish Wars. 1302-1385 War between Philip IV, King of France, and Flanders. 1302-1304 Battle of Courtrai (also called the “Battle of the Spurs”). July 11, 1302 The Flemish with pike and spear defeat the army of Philip IV the Fair, King of France, at the Battle of Courtrai, and save Flanders from the French occupation of 1301. Boniface VIII. Papal Bull “Unam Sanctum.” Nov. 1302 On the unity of the Church and the supreme authority of spiritual power over temporal power and “every human creature.” Exile of Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) from Florence. 1302 Giovanni Pisano. Italian sculptor and architect. Marble Pulpit. Pisa Cathedral. 1302-1311 Invention of the mariners compass at Naples. 1302 Malik Kafur, general of Alauddin Khilji, conquers southern India. 1302-1311 Death of St. Gertrude the Great (1256-1302) at Helfta. Nov. 17, 1302 Pope Boniface VIII. Founds the University of Avignon in France. 1303 Continuation of the conflict between Pope Boniface VIII and Philip IV, King of France. 1303 Boniface III prepares a bull of excommunication against Philip IV, King of France. Aug. 1303 Requests that the French hierarchy should come to Rome. The French hierarchy refuses to go to Rome. 1303 French council of state declares Philip IV the protector of the Catholic Church and Boniface VIII a heretic. Guillaume de Nogaret, Sciarra Colonna, and others draw up a bill charging Boniface VIII with idolatry, heresy, murder, magic, and perversion. 1303 None of these charges are true however. Pope Boniface VIII further censures France. 1303 Expedition of Guillaume de Nogaret to Rome and Anagni. 1303 He is sent by Philip IV, King of France. Guillaume de Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna invade Italy. Outrage of Anagni. Sept. 7, 1303 By Guillaume de Nogaret, an agent of Philip IV, King of France. To prevent his excommunication, Philip IV, King of France, sends his counselor Guillaume de Nogaret, who with the help of Sciarra Colonna, break into the papal castle at Anagni, seize Pope Boniface VIII, and make him prisoner. Nogaret and Colonna plunder the papal palace at Anagni. After three days, Pope Boniface VIII is rescued by the citizens of Anagni. Boniface VIII will die in the Vatican one month later (Oct. 11). Byzantine Emperor Andronicus hires the services of the Catalan Grand Company to fight against the Ottoman Turkish Empire. 1303 Peter of Abano (c.1250-c.1316). Writes “Conciliator controversiarum quae inter philosophos et medicos versantur.” 1303 Attempts a reconciliation of Greek philosophy and Arabic medicine. Abano was also a practitioner of astrology. Founding of the University of Avignon (France). 1303 Duns Scotus (c.1265-1308). Franciscan Order. Teaching in Paris (d.1308). 1303-1308 St. Stephen’s Cathedral. Vienna, Austria. 1304-1518 Inundation of the moslem city of Damascus. 1304 Battle of Mons-en-Pévèle. Aug. 18, 1304 (Part of the French-Flemish Wars). The French under Philip IV of England defeat the Flemish at Mons-en-Pévèle. The Flemish leave 6,000 dead on the battlefield. Founding of the College of Navarre by Joanna of Navarre, the wife of Philip IV, King of France. 1304 The Mongol army is crushed by the Sultanate of Delhi India. 1304 Theodoric of Freibourg. “De Iride.” (“On the Rainbow”). 1304 Death of Ranieri Rasini of Borgo San Sepolcro (in Arezzo). Franciscan. November 1, 1304 Dies at Borgo San Sepolcro. Pope Clement V. French. 1305-1314 Clement V, in 1309, will be the first of the Avignon Popes. Edward I, King of England, captures William Wallace (c.1272-1305) the leader of the Scottish rebellion against English rule. 1305 Edward I orders execution of William Wallace. Subjugation of Scotland to England. William Wallace is succeeded by Robert the Bruce (will be crowned 1306), a leader of the Scottish rebellion. End of the English-Scottish Wars (1296-1314). 13,000 total war dead. Wenceslaus III (c.1289-1306), son and successor of Wenceslaus II. King of Bohemia. 1305-1306 Founding of the University of Orléans (France). 1305 Giotto di Bondone (1266-1377). Santa Maria dell’Arena Chapel fresco cycle of 38 paintings. Padua. Completed. 1305 The following paintings are included. “Christ Entering Jerusalem.” “The Lamentation”. (Pietà). “The Raising of Lazarus from the Dead”. “The Baptism of Jesus Christ”. “Joachim Takes Refuge in the Wilderness”. “The Vision of St. Joachim”. “The Vision of Anna”. “Meeting of Joachim and Anna at the Golden Gate”. “The Annunciation”. Sanctuary arch. “The Nativity”. “The Flight into Egypt”. “The Betrayal of Christ”. “The Crucifixion of Jesus.” “The Resurrection of the Blessed”. “Pentecost”. “Justice”. “Injustice”. “Inconstancy”. “Fortitude”. “The Last Judgement.” Entrance wall, Arena Chapel. Death of St. Nicholas of Tolentino (1245-1305). Italian. Sept. 10, 1305 Expulsion of all Jews from France by Philippe IV, the Fair, (b.1268-d.1314), Capetian King of France (1285-1314). 1306 Vladislav the Dwarf. Duke of Poland. 1306-1320 Will be made king in 1320 until 1333. Robert the Bruce (1274-1329). Leads a new revolt against English rule in Scotland. March 1306 He is proclaimed Robert I, the Bruce, King of Scotland, at Scone (March 1306) in defiance of Edward I, King of England. Robert Bruce rules Scotland 1306-1329. Battle of Methven. June 19, 1306 Robert Bruce is decisively defeated by the English. Robert is driven into hiding on Rathlin Island, off the coast of Ireland. Hospitallers begin invasion of the Byzantine island of Rhodes. 1306 Assassination of Wenceslaus III, King of Bohemia. 1306 Bernard Guidonis (1261-1361). Dominican Order. Appointed new Inquisitor at Toulouse. 1306 He holds this position for seventeen years. Palazzo della Ragione. Padua, Italy. 1306 Pietro d’Abano (c.1250-c.1316). Becomes professor of medicine at Padua University. 1306 Robert Bruce returns to Scotland. 1307 Edward I, King of England. Dies on the march north to defeat Robert Bruce of Scotland. July 1307 Edward I is succeeded by Edward II, King of England. Edward II rules 1307-1327. Dante begins his “Divina Commedia” (“Divine Comedy”). 1307 Will be completed in 1321. Pope Clement V. Receives letter sent to him by John of Montecorvino. 1307 Establishes the archdiocese of Khanbalik (Peking) in the Mongol ruled kingdom of China. Giovanni de Montecorvino (1246-1328), Catholic priest. Made the first Archbishop of Peking (until his death in 1329). 1307 Philippe IV, King of France. Begins to illegally seize the properties of the crusading order, the Knights Templars. 1307 Philippe IV, King of France. Begins to plan for the destruction of the Order of Knights Templars in France. 1307 He will finally succeed in 1314. Completion of Lincoln Cathedral tower. 1307 Rütli Oath of the three Swiss cantons. 1307 The Roman Catholic Church condemns alchemy as a diabolical art. 1307 Battle of the Cephisus (also called the Battle of Orchomenos). 1307 Fought between the Catalan “Great Band” of 9,500 men, and 15,000 troops of Walter de Brienne, Duke of Athens. The Franks in Greece are defeated on the banks of the river Cephisus by the foot soldiers of the Catalan company. John Duns Scotus (c.1265-1308). Sent from Paris to Cologne. 1307 Dolcino of Novara (follower of Gerard Segarelli; see 1300) is executed. 1307 He is the leader of the so-called Pseudo-Apostles. Charles Robert of Anjou reigns as Charles I, King of Hungary. 1308-1342 Founds the Angevin line of kings in Hungary. Murder of Albert I, Holy Roman Emperor. 1308 Henry VII of Luxemburg is elected Holy Roman Emperor. 1308 Rules 1308-1313. Death of St. Clare of Montefalco (1268-1308). August 18, 1308 Death of John Duns Scotus (c.1265-1308). 1308 He is forty two years old. Founding of the University of Perugia in Italy. 1308 The Byzantines defeat an attack against Bursa by the Turkish Mohammedans. 1308 Knights of the Teutonic Order occupy Danzig. 1308 Death of Mesud (Masoud) II, the last sultan of Iconium (the Seljuk Sultan of Rūm). 1308 Sultan from 1284-1298 and then again from 1303-1308. End of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rūm (since 1092). Duccio di Buoninsegna (c.1255-1318). Italian. 1308-1311 The Maesta Altarpiece. Vast altarpiece with cycle of painted panels at Siena Cathedral. Front includes: Center: Maesta (“Virgin Mary Enthroned with Child Jesus with Saints and Angels”). “The Annunciation.” “Isaiah.” “Nativity.” “Ezekiel.” “Adoration of the Magi.” “Solomon.” “Presentation in the Temple.” “Malachi.” “The Massacre of the Innocents.” “Jeremiah.” “The Flight into Egypt.” “Hosea.” “The Child Jesus among the Doctors in the Temple.” “Thaddaeus.” “Simon the Apostle." “Philip the Apostle.” “James the Greater.” “Bartholomew the Apostle.” “Thomas the Apostle.” “Matthias.” “Annunciation of the Death of the Virgin Mary.” “Mary taking leave of John.” “Mary taking leave of the Apostles.” “The Death of Mary.” “Funeral Rites of Mary.” “The Entombment of Mary.” “The Assumption of the Virgin Mary.” “The Coronation of the Virgin Mary.” Back includes: “The Baptism of Christ.” “The First Temptation of Christ.” “The Temptation on a Pinnacle of the Temple.” “The Temptation on the Mountaintop”. “The Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew.” “The Marriage at Cana.” “Christ and the Woman of Samaria.” “Christ Healing the Blind.” “The Transfiguration of Jesus Christ.” “The Raising of Lazarus from the Dead.” “The Entrance of Jesus Christ into Jerusalem.” “Jesus Washing the Feet of the Apostles.” “The Last Supper.” “Christ Taking leave of the Apostles.” “The Covenant of Judas.” “Christ in the Garden of Olives.” “The Kiss of Judas.” “The Denial of Christ by St. Peter.” “Christ before Annas.” “Christ before Caiaphas.” “Christ buffeted.” “Christ is arraigned by the Pharisees.” “Pontius Pilate questioning Christ.” “Christ before Herod.” “The Scourging of Christ.” “The Crowning with Thorns.” “Pontius Pilate Washing his hands.” “Calvary.” “The Crucifixion.” “The Descent from the Cross.” “The Entombment.” “The Three Marys at the Tomb of Christ.” “The Descent of Christ into Limbo.” “Noli me Tangere.” “The Way to Emmaus.” “Christ Appearing to the Apostles after His Resurrection.” “The Disbelief of Thomas.” “Christ Appearing beside the Lake of Tiberias.” “Christ Speaking with Peter.” “Christ Appearing to the Apostles on a Mountain in Galilee.” “Christ Appearing to the Apostles in the Upper Room.” “The Ascension.” “Pentecost.” “Babylonian Captivity” of the Pope. 1309 Under French influence, Philippe IV, King of France, invites the Frenchman, Pope Clement V (Pope: 1305-1314), to move the headquarters of the papacy from Rome to France. Clement V makes Avignon, France the seat of the Roman Catholic Church. Pope Clement V sets up papal court at Avignon. Avignon will remain the seat of the Church from 1309 until 1377. Siegfried von Feuchtwangen (Master: 1303-1311). 1309 The High Master of the Order of the Teutonic Knights (founded originally for service in the Holy Land, an association recalled by the name of Thorn, the Order’s first foundation in Prussia). Moves the seat of the Teutonic Order from Venice, Italy to Marienburg (Malbork) in Pomesania (in Prussia). The Hospitaller Knights move their headquarters from the island of Cyprus to the island of Rhodes. 1309 Gibraltar is retaken from the Mohammedans. 1309 Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Ramon Lùll (c.1232-1315). In Paris. Fights Averroism there. 1309-1311 Founding of the University of Orléans. 1309 Privilege by Pope Clement V, 1305. Permanent union of Aragon and Valencia. 1309 Death of St. Angela of Foligno (1248-1309). January 4, 1309 Stigmatica, ecstatica, and incorruptible. Robert of Anjou. King of Naples. 1309-1343 Doge’s Palace, Venice. Begun. 1309 Built on the site of earlier palaces (1309-1440). Jean Joinville (c.1224-1317). French historian. (“Histoire de Saint Louis”). 1309 “The Life of Saint Louis.” Council of Ten is founded in Venice (Venetian tribunal). 1310 Governs Venice until the state of Venice is dissolved by Napoleon in 1797. Philip IV, King of France. Illegally orders the Archbishop of Sens to place fifty four Templar Knights on trial and condemn them to be burned at the stake as relapsed heretics for daring to retract their confessions which they made under excruciating tortures. 1310 None of the accusations against the Templar Order are true. Orvieto Cathedral. c.1310 Lorenzo Maitani and others. Begun c.1290. Conquest of Rhodes from the Moslems by the Hospitalers (Knights of St. John of Jerusalem). 1310 They will rule the island of Rhodes until 1522. Giotto (1266-1337). Italian. “Ognisanti Madonna”. c.1310 (Enthroned Madonna). Panel painting. Johannes de Muris. c.1310 Philosopher, scholar, mathematician, and astronomer. “Speculum Musices.” Musical treatise. Death of St. Umiltà of Faenza (1226-1310) at Florence. May 22, 1310 Establishment of the Feast of Corpus Christi in Europe. 1311 Robert Bruce of Scotland. Invades northern England. 1311 Council of Vienne. 1311-1312 (Fifteenth General Council of the Catholic Church). Convened by Clement V. Condemnation of Beguines (1311). They still survive however in Belgium and the Netherlands. Condemnation of the Beghards (1311) as heretics. 1311 They will gradually disappear. Exoneration of Boniface VIII. Condemnation of Knights Templar instigated by Philip IV, King of France. Knights of the Templar Order are condemned by Pope Clement V at the instigation of Philip IV, King of France. 1311-1312 None of the accusations against the Templar Order are true. Bernard Guidonis (Bernard Gui). French. Elected Master General of the Dominican Order. 1311 Church of the Holy Apostles. Salonika, Greece. 1312-1315 Death of Christina of Stommeln (1242-1312). November 6, 1312 Also known as Christina Bruzo (Bruso). Stigmatica and ecstatica. Alphonso XI. King of Castile. 1312-1350 Treaty of Vienne. 1312 Philip IV, King of France, annexes Lyons to France. Henry VII of Luxembourg is crowned emperor in Rome. 1312 Death of Henry VII of Luxembourg while advancing against Naples. 1312 Civil War in the Holy Roman Empire. 1313-1325 Death of the malignant genius William de Nogaret, the agent of Philip IV of France, that caused the innocent Templar Knights to confess under excruciating tortures to crimes that they never committed. April 1313 Philip IV, King of France. March 11, 1314 Envious of the fame of the Templar Order and their possessions, Philip IV orders the last Grand Master of the Order of Knights Templars, Jacques de Molay, to be burned at the stake for heresy in France. Sixty nine other Templars are also burned at the stake. The Templar Order is abolished. They Templars were all forced to confess to things that they did not do by submitting them to long and unspeakable tortures. Pope Clement V dies 33 days after Jacques de Molay and the Templar Order was condemned by false accusations, false witnesses, and false testimonies. April 14, 1314 Simone Martini (c.1284-1344). Italian painter. Begins painting of ten scenes from the life of St. Martin of Tours. 1313 He will complete them in 1318. “St. Martin dividing his cloak with a beggar”. “St. Martin is made a knight”. “St. Martin Renouncing his Weapons”. “MIracle of the child raised from the dead”. “The Miraculous Mass”. “The Dream of St. Ambrose of Milan”. “St. Martin’s visit to the Emperor and the burning throne”. “Apparition of Christ and Angels in the Dream of St. Martin”. “Death of St. Martin”. “The Burial of St. Martin”. Death of Philip IV (b.1268-d.1314), King of France. Nov. 29, 1314 Philip IV Illegally caused the destruction of the Templar Order. Louis X. King of France. 1314-1316 Edward II, King of England, invades Scotland. 1314 Battle of Bannockburn. June 24, 1314 Robert the Bruce, the Scottish leader, defeats an invading English army of 15,000 men, under Edward II, King of England, at Bannockburn in Scotland. Edward II of England barely manages to escape capture. This is the greatest loss ever suffered by the English knights in a single day. 4,000 Scots are killed. Scotland wins independence from England. Louis IV of Bavaria is elected Holy Roman Emperor at Aachen. 1314 Rules 1314-1347. Frederick III of Austria is elected King of Germany at Bonn. 1314 Rules 1314-1325. Frederick III is rival king to Louis IV of Bavaria. Beginning of civil war between Louis IV and Frederick III of Austria, his rival. 1314 Exeter. English college is founded. 1314 Terrible famine in England. 1314 People eat cats and dogs. Thousands perish. George V, King of Georgia. 1314-1346 Ramon Lùll (c.1232-1315). Franciscan tertiary. 1315 Teaches Christian doctrine openly among the Mohammedans in Tunis. He is stoned to death by the Mohammedans. During his life, Ramon Lùll wrote over 100 books. His subjects included biology, chemistry, physics, anatomy, medicine, astronomy, psychology, philosophy, military science, grammar, rhetoric, mathematics, logic, and mnemonics (the Ars Memoria). Battle of Mortgarten. Nov. 1315 Victory of the Swiss Confederation over Leopold of Austria. Edward Bruce, brother of Robert Bruce, leads a Scottish invasion into Ireland. They ally with Irish chieftains. 1315 English rule is undermined. Peter of Abano (c.1250-c.1316) is accused of heresy (on charges of practicing magic) for the second time. 1315 He dies in 1316. Giovanni Pisano. Italian sculptor and architect. Madonna. Marble. ca.1315 Simone Martini (ca.1284-1344). Italian. Maesta (The Virgin Mary in Majesty). Fresco painting. Siena. 1315 Disease and starvation claims approximately six percent of the total population of Europe. 1315-1317 John XXII (b.1249-d.1334). Avignon Pope. 1316 Pope 1316-1334. Death of Louis X, King of France. Philip V (b.1294-d.1322). King of France. 1316-1322 Universal dearth in England. 1316 The living can scarcely bury the dead. Thousands perish. Terrible dearth in Ireland. Thousands perish. 1316 Rumors of Prestor John, the legendary Christian king in East Africa, lead Pope John XXII to send eight Dominicans to Ethiopia in order to search for him. 1316 Philip. King of Navarre. 1316-1322 Accession of Grand Duke Gedimin, founder of the Lithuanian Empire. 1316 Rules 1316-1341. Fall of the Indian kingdom of the Deccan to the Mohammedans. 1316 Mondino de’Luzzi (c.1275-1326). Italian. “Anatomia.” A work on human Anatomy. 1316 Ugolino di Nerio. Active. 1317-1327 “The Deposition.” Painting. Simone Martini (c.1284-1344). Italian. “Robert of Anjou crowned by Saint Louis.” Panel painting. c.1317 Paints altarpiece for Robert of Anjou. Giotto (1266-1337). Santa Croce, Florence. ca.1318-1320 “St. Francis Undergoing the test by Fire Before the Sultan.” Fresco. “The Death of St. Francis.” Fresco. “The Ascension of St. John the Evangelist.” “The Feast of Herod.” Siege of Bursa (1317-1326) begins. 1317 Army of Othman I, lays siege to Bursa (Brusa), an outpost of the Byzantine Empire in northwestern Asia Minor. The garrison holds out for nine years against the Ottoman Turkish Empire. Bursa will finally be starved into submission and fall in 1326. Great famine in Ireland. 1317 Salic Law is adopted in France to justify Philip V’s succession. 1317 Salic Law excludes females from succession to the throne. Pope John XXII. Issues strong condemnation of the practice of alchemy. 1317 Basarab I. Ruler of Walachia. 1317-1352 Diniz. King of Portugal (ruled: 1279-1325). Founds the Portuguese navy. 1317 Death of St. Agnes of Montepulciano (1268-1317). April 20, 1317 Odoric of Pordenone (c.1286-1331). Franciscan Order. A Christian missionary, he is sent to Eastern Asia. 1318 He spends twelve years traveling through Asia. Pope John XXII. Denounces the Fraticelli. 1318 Declares many of their doctrines to be heretical. Four false Franciscans are burnt for heresy at Marseilles. 1318 John XXII is Pope. Battle of Faughart (near Dundalk). Oct. 1318 A Scottish army of 3,000 men is defeated and Edward Bruce is killed. Greatest earthquake in the British Isles to this date. 1318 The Swiss make peace with the Habsburgs. 1318 Marchettus de Padua. Italian. “Lucidarium in Arte Musicae Planae” and “Pomerium in Arte Musicae Mensuratae.” These two treatises on musical notation are published. 1318 William of Ockham is teaching at Oxford University. 1318-1324 Pope John XXII. Sets up a commission to inquire into the practice of magic by the clergy at the papal court. 1318 Union of Norway and Sweden under Magnus II of Sweden. (Magnus VII of Norway). 1319 Magnus VII Eriksson. King of Sweden. 1319-1363 Also becomes Magnus VII King of Norway. 1319-1343 Battle of Myton-upon-Swale. Sept. 1319 The Scots defeat the English at Myton-upon-Swale. A Hospitaller and Genoese fleet destroy a flotilla of the Ottoman Turkish Empire off Ephesus. 1319 Master of the Codex of St. George. Unknown painter. “The Redeemer with The Virgin Mary, St. Peter, St. John the Apostle, St. Paul, and one Saint (?)”. Painted on Wood. c.1320-1340 Peace of Paris. 1320 Between France and Flanders. Ladislaus I (Vladislav I) Lokietek is crowned in Cracow. 1320 King of Poland (1320-1333). Re-establishes united Polish kingdom. Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361). French. “Ars Nova.” Musical treatise. 1320 Giotto (1266-1337). Italian. “The Last Supper.” Painting. ca.1320 Pietro Lorenzetti (died ca.1348). Italian. “Madonna and Child with Saints, Annunciation, and Assumption.” 1320 Panel painting. Christopher II reigns in Denmark. 1320-1326 Reigns also 1330-1331. Gediman of Lithuania. Conquest of Kiev by the Lithuanians. 1320 Master of the Right Transept. Nativity. Fresco. 1320-1330 Right Transept, Lower Church, San Francesco, Assisi. Civil war in the Byzantine Empire. 1321-1328 Monte Cassino becomes a bishopric. 1321 Famine in England. 1321 Thousands perish. Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). Italian. c.1321 Completes “La Divina Commedia” (“The Divine Comedy”). Begun c.1307. Consists of Cantiche I: Inferno Cantiche II: Purgatorio Cantiche III: Paradiso Death of Dante Alighieri. 1321 Monastery Church of Gračanica, Yugoslavia. 1321 Built during the reign of King Milutin. William Belibaste, Cathar (Catharism) leader, burnt. 1321 Barons’ Revolt in England. 1322 Edward II, King of England, defeats his rebellious nephew Thomas of Lancaster at the Battle of Boroughbridge. Edward II has his nephew, Thomas of Lancaster, beheaded. Barons’ power in England is broken. Charles IV, the Fair (b.1294-d.1328). King of France. 1322-1328 Reigns as the last of the Capetian kings of France. Charles I. King of Navarre. 1322-1328 Battle of Mühldorf. 1322 Victory of Louis IV of Bavaria at Mühldorf insures his claim to the throne. Louis IV defeats Frederick’s army (Hapsburg). Alan of Walsingham. Completes the octagon of Ely Cathedral. 1322 Master John. Completes the choir of Cologne Cathedral. 1322 Bernard Guidonis (Bernard Gui). “Practica Inquisitionis Heretice Pravitatis.” c.1323 Deals with heretics, and how to detect them. Deals especially with Manicheanism (Manichean heresy). The last Cathars (Catharism/Albigensianism) of southern France are burnt at the stake. 1323-1324 Revolt in Flanders. 1323-1328 The Mamelukes conclude a treaty with the Mongols in Egypt. 1323 Odoric of Pordenone (c.1286-1331). Franciscan Order. A Christian missionary, he travels through China. 1324-1328 Excommunication of Emperor Louis IV by Pope John XXII. March 1324 Consecration of Burgos Cathedral. 1324 John of Janduno (Averroist) and Marsilius of Padua (Averroist) collaborate in writing the “Defensor Pacis” (Paris). 1324-1327 (“Defender of the Peace”). This is the most extreme of all attacks yet launched on the Pope’s claim to supremacy. Sets out arguments in favour of a purely secular state. Death of Marco Polo (1254-1324). 1324 Cecco d’Ascoli, astrologer, is condemned by the Inquisition. 1324 Cecco d’Ascoli denies Free Will. Burned 1327. Alfonso IV. King of Portugal. 1325-1357 “Tournai Mass.” 1325 First polyphonic Mass that is still extant. Peak of Mohammedan power in Spain. c.1325 Famine in China. 1325 8 million out of 45 million Chinese die. Luttrell Psalter. c.1325 English illustrated manuscript. Master of the Codex of Saint George. Painter’s name is unknown. “Codex of Saint George”. 1324-1330 Beginning of the Nō theatre in Japan. c.1325 Fall of the Christian city of Bursa, to Orkhan I, son of Osman I, the leader of the Ottoman Turkish moslems. Nov. 1326 Bursa falls after a nine year moslem siege which began in 1317. Death of Osman I (b.1259-d.1326), the founder of the Ottoman Turkish Empire (see 1288). 1326 Orkhan, his son, makes Bursa his capital. Bursa becomes the first capital of the Ottoman Turkish moslems. Bursa will be replaced as the Ottoman Turkish capital, 40 years later by Adrianople, in Thrace, in 1366. Orkhan (also Orhan) I. Second Ottoman ruler. Rules as the Sultan of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. 1326-1360 Orkhan I will lead the moslem Jihad across the Dardanelles and into Europe (1345). The Ottoman moslems begin their invasion of Eastern Europe under the rule of Orkhan I. Orkhan I forms the Janissaries. 1326 The Janissaries are formed by capturing young Christian boys from Christian cities in Europe. The young boys are indoctrinated to become moslems. They are provided with military training, and then sent out to fight in the wars of the moslem jihad, against the Christian nations. The Janissaries will continue until 1826 when they are finally suppressed. Isabella, the wife of Edward II, King of England, and her paramour Roger Mortimer sail from France with an army in order to rebel against Edward II of England. 1326 They invade England and capture Edward II, the king. First Polish War. 1326-1333 The Teutonic Knights raid Poland. The Teutonic Knights will defeat Poland in 1333. Robert de Handlo. “Regulae cum Maximis Magistri Franconis, cum Additionibus Aliorum Musicorum.” 1326 Musical treatise. Cambridge University is founded. 1326 Pope John XXII declares Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor, deposed. 1327 Edward II, King of England, is deposed by Parliament. 1327 Edward III, the Black Prince, the son of Edward II, accedes to the throne of England. Edward II will be murdered nine months later at Berkeley Castle. Edward III, the Black Prince. Rules England. 1327-1377 Teachings of Meister Eckhart (b.c.1260-1327). 1327 The German Dominican is accused of heresy. Death of Meister Eckhart. 1327 Pope John XXII. Issues a condemnation of the practice of sorcery and witchcraft. 1327 The great fire of Munich. 1327 The Aztecs establish their capital on the site of what is now called Mexico City (Tenochtitlan). 1327 Cecco d’Ascoli, astrologer, is burned at the stake by the Inquisition for denying the freedom of the will (Free Will). 1327 Arrival of over 200,000 Mohammedans in order to assist Granada, in the war against Christian Spain. 1327 Arrival of Bernardo Barlaamo (Barlaam) of Calabria in Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. 1327 Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor. Excommunicated in 1324, Louis IV invades Italy. 1328 Receives the imperial crown in Rome from Sciarra Colonna. Declares the deposition of Pope John XXII on the charge of heresy. Louis IV, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Proclaims one of the heretical Fraticelli, pope (anti-pope) with the name Nicholas V. May 1328 Antipope (false pope) Nicholas V will be driven from Rome three months later. Robert Bruce of Scotland. Invades England. 1328 England is forced to recognize the independence of Scotland (Treaty of Northampton in same year). England recognizes Robert Bruce as King of Scotland. Death of Charles IV, King of France. 1328 Charles IV is the last in the line of Capetian kings of France. He dies without leaving an heir. His sister’s son, the king of England, lays claim to the throne and seeks to unite the crowns of France and England. This claim will give rise to the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453). Charles IV is succeeded by his cousin Philippe VI of Valois. Philippe VI rules 1328-1350 founding the House of Valois (Valois line of kings) which will last until 1589. End of the Capetian Dynasty of kings in France. 1328 The Capetian kings had ruled France since 987. Philip VI, King of France, intervenes in troubled Flanders. 1328 Philip VI defeats the Flemings at the Battle of Cassel. For a time Philip VI takes over Flanders. Edward III, King of England, threatened with confiscation of his vast holdings in southwestern France, submits to Philip VI of France and does him homage (1329). Alfonso IV. King of Aragon. 1328-1336 Andronicus II Paleologus, Byzantine Emperor, is deposed by his grandson. 1328 Andronicus III. Byzantine Emperor. 1328-1341 Excommunication of William of Ockham. 1328 Ivan I Kalita. Grand Duke of Novgorod and Vladimir. 1328-1341 Ivan I makes Moscow his capital in 1328. Thomas Brandwardine. 1328 “Tractatus de proportionibus velocitatum in motibus.” This is an early work on Kinematics using algebra. Improves on the Aristotelian laws of motion. Taddeo Gaddi (1290-1366). Fresco cycle of paintings of scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary. Santa Croce, Florence. Paintings include: 1328-1333 “The Expulsion of Joachim from the Temple”. “The Meeting of Joachim and Anna at the Golden Gate”. “The Presentation of the Virgin”. “The Marriage of the Virgin”. “The Adoration of the Magi”. Pope John XXII. “In agro dominico”. 1329 Condemnation of 28 theses maintained by Meister Eckhart (d.1327). Battle of Pelakanon. June 1329 Fought between Byzantine army and the Ottoman Turks. Andronicus III, Byzantine Emperor, is defeated by Orkhan I, the ruler of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. Orkhan I takes Nicaea. Eruption of the great volcano, Etna in Sicily. 1329 Death of Robert Bruce, King of Scotland. 1329 David II, succeeds his father, Robert Bruce, as King of Scotland. David II rules 1329-1371. Andrea Pisano (ca.1270-1349). Italian sculptor. 1329-1336 South door of the Baptistry of Florence Cathedral. The door is made of gilded bronze. Contains 28 relief panels. 20 depicting scenes from the life of St. John the Baptist and 8 depicting the eight virtues (Faith, Hope, Fortitude, Prudence, etc). Founding of the Monastery of Ettal, Bavaria. 1330 Serbs defeat Byzantines and Bulgarians, ending Bulgar power. 1330 Pietro Lorenzetti (d.c.1345). Italian. “The Descent from the Cross.” Fresco painting. c.1330 Pietro da Rimini. Italian. “The Deposition from the Cross.” Painting on wood. c.1330-1340 Origination of the Bubonic plague in India. c.1330 Barlaam of Calabria (Bernardo Massari) c.1290-1348. Travels from Italy to the Greek peninsula and opens a school in Thessalonica. 1330 Barlaam teaches Logic, Dialectics, Geometry, Mathematics, Astronomy, Philosophy, and History. John Bassaraba founds the independent principality of Walachia. 1330 Odoric of Pordenone (c.1286-1331). Franciscan Order. Returns to Padua, by way of central Asia, after spending three years in China. He spent a total of twelve years traveling through Asia. 1330 Simone Martini of Siena (c.1284-1344). Italian painter. Altarpiece of the Miracles of the Blessed Agostino Novello. c.1330-1336 “Child attacked by a wolf”. “Child falling from balcony”. “Knight falling into a ravine”. “Child falling from its cradle”. Bernardo Daddi (c.1280-1350). Italian painter. Altarpiece of San Pancrazio. 1336-1338 Includes “The Meeting of St. Joachim and St. Anne at the Golden Gate of Jerusalem.” William of Ockham. “Summa totius logicae.” c.1330 (Ockham’s razor). Fall of Nicaea (modern Iznik) to Orkhan I, leader of the Ottoman Turkish Mohammedans. 1331 Stephen IV Dushan (d.1355), founder of Greater Serbia. Proclaimed emperor of the Serbs at Skopyle. 1331 Stephen Dushan is King of Serbia, from 1331-1346, and will rule as Czar from 1346-1355. Disputed imperial succession in Japan leads to Japanese civil wars against Hojo regents. 10,000 total war dead. 1331-1333 Fall of the Hojo family of shoguns. Restoration of imperial power in Japan. Battle of Dupplin Moor. Aug. 12, 1332 Edward de Baliol (Balliol), son of John de Balliol, invades Scotland with the support of England. Defeats David II. He is crowned King of Scotland (Sept. 24). Recognizes Edward III, King of England, as overlord (Nov.). Edward de Baliol will be driven back over the border (Dec.). First record of English Parliament divided into two houses. 1332 Taddeo Gaddi (1290-1366). Italian. “Annunciation to the Shepherds.” Fresco painting. 1332-1338 The Bubonic plague originates in India once again. 1332 Ambrogio Lorenzetti (c.1290-1348). Italian painter. Scenes from the Life of Saint Nicholas of Bari. c.1332 “The Miracle of the Ships of Grain”. “St. Nicholas resuscitates a young boy strangled by the devil”. “St. Nicholas is ordained Bishop of Myra”. “St. Nicholas giving gold to a destitute family”. Battle of Halidon Hill. July 19, 1333 Edward III, King of England, besieging Berwick for Edward de Baliol, decisively defeats a Scottish force led by Archibald Douglas, the regent for David II, King of Scotland. Edward III, King of England, deposes David II of Scotland, and replaces him with puppet king Edward de Baliol. 1333 Mohammedans recapture Gibraltar from Castile. 1333 Famine and plague in China. 1333-1337 6,600,000 perish. This famine may possibly have been related to the Bubonic plague that originated in India and spread westward to Europe (the Black Death). Flood in Florence. 1333 The Knights of the Teutonic Order defeat the Poles. 1333 End of the First Polish War (1326-1333). Casimir III, the Great. King of Poland. 1333-1370 Casimir III is the last ruler of the Piast Dynasty. Toghon Temür Khan (1320-1370), the last of the Mongol Emperors of China succeeds to throne. 1333 Was a practitioner of the exercises of Tibetan Tantric Buddhism. Simone Martini of Siena (c.1284-1344). “The Annunciation with St. Ansanus and St. Maxima”. Triptych. 1333 Bernardo Daddi (1280-1348). Italian. Triptych. “Virgin Mary and Child”. Central panel. 1333 “Nativity”. Left wing. “Crucifixion”. Right wing. Siege of Nicomedia. Orkhan I leads the moslems in the takeover of Nicomedia. 1333-1337 Nicomedia will fall to the moslems in 1337. Benedict XII. Avignon Pope. 1334-1342 Benedict XII was renowned as “the scourge of the heretics.” The “Black Death” (Bubonic plague), strikes Constantinople. c.1334 Probably from India. Giotto (1266-1337). Italian painter, architect, and sculptor. Appointed chief architect to Florence. 1334 Appointed master of the works on the Duomo at Florence, the city fortifications, and all public architectural undertakings. Giotto designs the façade of the Duomo, which was not finished, and builds the Florence Cathedral campanile. John XIV, surnamed Kalekos. Patriarch of Constantinople. 1334-1347 John Kalekos is Anti-Hesychast and an opponent of Gregory Palamas (Palamism) and Hesychastic practices. Giovanni da Balduccio of Pisa. Shrine of Saint Peter the Martyr in S. Eustorgio, Milan, Italy. 1334 Pope Benedict XII. Issues reforms pertaining to monastic orders. 1335 Edward III, King of England. Invades Scotland. 1335-1336 Louis IV of the Hapsburgs annexes Carinthia. 1335 Richard of Wallingford. “Quadripartitium de sinibus demonstratis.” 1335 First original Latin treatise written on Trigonometry. Ambrogio Lorenzetti (c.1290-1348). Italian. Maesta: “Virgin Mary and Child Jesus with Saints and Angels.” 1335 Panel painting. France once again declares war on England. 1336 Peter IV. King of Aragon. 1336-1387 The University of Paris decrees that no student can graduate without attending courses in mathematics. 1336 Revolution in Japan. 1336 Emperor Daigo II is exiled. The Ashikaga family rule Japan as shoguns (until 1568). Period begins with civil war lasting until 1392. Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) visits Rome. 1337 Edward III, King of England, urged by Flanders, reasserts his claim to the throne of France. 1337 To enforce English demands on Philip VI, King of France, Edward III, King of England, begins ravaging northwestern France. The Hundred Years’ War (1137-1453) begins. Beginning of the “Hundred Years’ War” between England and France. 1337 English and French kings fight for control of France. Will end in 1453. Simone Martini (c.1284-1344). Italian. c.1337 Polyptych. Paintings include: “The Annunciation.” “Crucifixion.” “The Way to Golgotha.” “The Descent from the Cross.” “Pietà.” Fall of Nicomedia (modern Izmit), to the Ottoman Turkish moslems under Orkhan I. 1337 Condemnation of Ockhamist (William of Ockham) teaching by the University of Paris. 1337 Confrontation of Gregory Palamas (Hesychast) with Barlaamo of Calabria (anti-Hesychast). 1337 Electoral Union of Rense. 1338 Six electors of the Holy Roman Empire declare that the emperor, like the Pope, derives his authority directly from God, and once elected by the German princes, could therefore d isperse with his coronation by the Pope. Electors of the Holy Roman Empire declare the Empire to be independent from the papacy. The electors eliminate papal confirmation for the naming of an emperor. Treaty of Coblenz. Sept. 5, 1338 Alliance between Edward III, King of England, and Louis (Ludwig) IV of the Holy Roman Empire. The Alans, the Chinese imperial guard, are converted from paganism to Christianity. 1338 The French burn Portsmouth. 1338 Asia Minor is now completely under the control of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. 1338 Founding of the University of Pisa in Italy. 1338 Edward III, King of England, continues his invasion of France via Flanders. 1339 Battle of Laupen. June 1339 Part of the Swiss-Burgundian Wars. 15,000 Burgundians commanded by Gerard of Vallangin lay siege to Laupen. The Burgundians are defeated by the Swiss who used halberds and pikes. Edward de Balliol is driven from Scotland. 1339 St. Peter’s Church. Leyden, Holland. 1339-1426 Battle of Río Salado. Oct. 30, 1340 Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). After Mohammedans from North Africa launch a major invasion of Iberia, the Christians now face both Moslems from Spain and from North Africa. Alfonso XI, King of Castile, aided by Alphonso IV, King of Portugal, join forces and defeat the Mohammedans at Seville. This is one of the greatest battles in the Christian reconquest of Spain from the Mohammedans. Edward III, King of England. Assumes the title of King of France at Ghent. Jan. 1340 Battle of Sluys (near Bruges). June 24, 1340 Part of the Hundred Years’ War. Fought between English and French fleets. The English defeat the French off Sluys (Sluis). English get temporary control of the English Channel. Maso di Banco (c.1324-1357)). Italian. Fresco paintings. Santa Croce, Florence. c.1340 Six scenes from the Life and Miracles of St. Sylvester (d.335). “Roman Emperor Constantine, on the throne, listens to St. Sylvester and then is baptized by him”. “The Dream of Constantine with the vision of St. Peter and St. Paul”. “Sylvester presents the sacred images to Constantine”. “Sylvester closes the dragon's jaws and resurrects two dead Roman magicians killed by the monster's breath”. “Miracle of the resurrection of the bull”. “New Year's Eve on Mount Soratte”. Richard Rolle. English Psalter (the Book of Psalms). c.1340 Nardo di Cione Orcagna (d. before 1367). Italian. c.1340 “Pietà.” Paolo da Venezia (fl.1333-1362). Italian painter. “Scenes from the Life of Christ.” c.1340 “The Virgin Mary and Child Jesus Enthroned.” Valdemar (Waldemar) IV. King of Denmark. 1340-1375 First paper mill in Europe is set up at Fabriano, Italy. 1340 Italy is struck by the Black Death (bubonic plague). 1340 Thousands will perish. Taddeo Gaddi (1290-1366). Italian painter. Scenes from the Life of St. Eligius. c.1340 “St. Eligius as a Goldsmith”. “St. Eligius before Clotaire II” . Jean Buridan (c.1297-1358). French. “Summulae di dialecta”. c.1340 On Logic and Dialectics. Stephan Dushan of Serbia overruns Macedonia. 1341 The Greek Church, under Andronicus III (b.1296-d.1341), the Byzantine Emperor, condemns and rejects Barlaam and his Anti-Hesychast position. June 1341 The Greeks defend Hesychasm and Hesychastic practices. Four days later Emperor Andronicus III dies. Sudden death of Andronicus III (1296-1341), Byzantine Emperor. 1341 John V Palaeologus becomes Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Rules 1341-1347, 1354-1376, and 1379-1391. Outbreak of Civil War in the Byzantine Empire (1341-1355). 1341 Fought between John V Palaeologus and the anti-emperor John Cantacuzene, for control of the Byzantine Empire. Pietro Lorenzetti (fl.1306-1348). Italian painter. “Twelve scenes from the Life of the Blessed Umilità of Faenza”. Polyptych. 1341 Alliance formed between Louis (Ludwig) IV of Germany and Philippe VI, King of France. March 1341 Simeon. Grand Duke of Moscow. 1341-1353 War of the Breton Succession. 1341-1365 A dynastic struggle in Brittany. English are at war in Brittany. Great “dearth” in England and Scotland. 1341 People eat cats, dogs, mice, rats, and horses. Thousands perish. Famine in Delhi, India. 1342 Thousands die from starvation. Louis the Great, King of Hungary. 1342-1382 Giovanni Marignolli. Franciscan Order. Sent as the legate of Pope Benedict XIII to the Emperor of China. 1342 He arrives at Peking, China. Clement VI. Avignon Pope. 1342-1352 Simone Martini (c.1284-1344). Italian painter. Polyptych of the Passion of Christ. c.1342 Includes “The Road to Calvary”. Barlaam (Bernardo) of Calabria. Rejects the Greek Church because of the controversy over Greek Hesychasm. 1342 He leaves Constantinople and returns to Italy. Barlaam enters the Roman Catholic Church. Barlaam is appointed Bishop of Geraci, Italy. Ambrogio Lorenzetti (c.1290-1348). Italian. “Presentation in the Temple.” Panel painting. 1342 Jean de Meurs. “Quadripartitum numerorum.” (“Fourfold Division of Numbers”). 1343 Treatise on mathematics, mechanics, and music. John Kalekos (anti-Hesychast), the Patriarch of Constantinople, orders Gregory Palamas (Hesychast) arrested. 1343 John Kalekos rejects all Hesychastic doctrine, practices, and teachings. Pietro Lorenzetti. Italian. “The Birth of the Virgin Mary”. Panel painting. 1342 Jan van Ruusbroec (1293-1381). Flemish. “Die Chierheit der Gheestelekir Brulocht.” ca.1343-1350 (“The Spiritual Espousals”). Richard Rolle (c.1300-1349). “Incendium Amoris.” 1343 (“The Fire of Love”). Christian writing. Zwettl Abbey. Austria. 1343 Peace of Kalisch. 1343 Teutonic Order receives land, cutting off Poland from access to the Baltic Sea. Joan I. Queen of Naples. 1343-1381 Magnus VII Eriksson abdicates the throne of Norway. 1343 Haakon VI Magnusson reigns (1343-1380) as King of Norway. Siege of Algeciras. 1344 Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Alfonso XI of Castile (and León) recaptures Algeciras from the moslems. First known recorded use of the term “Hanseatic League”. 1344 Refers to the Hansa towns, a north German trading federation. By 1344, the Serbians under King Stevan IV Dušan (Serbia) have conquered Albania, Macedonia, Thessaly, and Epirus. 1344 St. Bridget of Sweden (c.1300-1373). Founds a monastery at Vadstena marking the beginning of the Order of the Most Holy Saviour (Bridgettines). 1344 St. Vitus’ Cathedral (Prague Cathedral). Czechoslovakia. 1344-1352 Begun by Matthew of Arras. Philippe (1336-1375), the son of Valois French King Philip VI, is the first to be given the title “Duke of Orléans.” 1344 Maso di Banco. Italian. “Pietà.” Painting. 1344 Terrible famine throughout Hindustan. 1344-1345 Thousands perish. Order of Knights Hospitallers join the papal league in the capture of Izmire from the Ottoman Turkish Empire. 1344 Ambrogio Lorenzetti. Italian. “The Annunciation.” Panel painting. 1344 John Cantacuzene, in the hope of making Orkhan I, the emir of the Ottoman Turkish Empire an ally, offers him his daughter Theodora in marriage. Orkhan I accepts the offer and gives John Cantacuzene military assistance consisting of 6,000 moslem troops. 1345 Orkhan I, the leader of the Ottoman moslems, now allied with Emperor John Cantacuzene, enters the Balkans (Thrace) and attacks Serbia. 1346 This is the first entry of the Ottoman Turkish moslems into Europe. Orkhan I is the first Ottoman ruler to bring an Ottoman army across the Dardanelles into Europe. Orkhan I brings the moslem Jihad with him. Beginning of the invasion of Europe by the Ottoman Turkish moslems. The way is now prepared for the invasion of the Ottoman Turkish armies which will ultimately lead to the fall and destruction of Constantinople 107 years later in 1453. Expedition of the Earl of Derby in Guienne is successful. 1345 Aztecs found their first major center in Mexico. 1345 Doge’s Palace. Venice. Completed. 1340 Taddeo Gaddi (1290-1366). Italian painter. “The Tree of Life and the Last Supper”. Fresco painting. 1345-1350 Reign of Algirdas, the successor of Gedimina in Lithuania. 1345-1377 Edward III, King of England, invades France. 1346 Lands a large expeditionary force at St. Vaast on the shore of the Cotentin Peninsula of Normandy. Edward III has about 15,000 men, mostly mobile lightly armored infantry and archers carrying longbows. Battle of Créçy (English vs. French). August 26, 1346 Part of the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453). 15,000 English under Edward III, King of England, defeat 40,000 French and Genoese under Philip VI, King of France. Possibly the first use of cannon. French lose almost 12,000 men. This is considered one of the decisive battles in the history of the world. Charles IV. German king. 1346-1378 Johannes Tauler (ca.1300-1371). Christian monk. “Sermons.” 1346 Stephen IV Dushan (d.1355), King of the Serbians. Crowns himself “Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks.” 1346 Bulgaria, Albania, and Macedonia are very briefly united. Valdemar IV of Denmark sells Estonia to the Teutonic Order. 1346 Scottish invasion of England. Oct. 17, 1346 Battle of Neville’s Cross. The English successfully crush the Scottish invasion of England at the Battle of Neville’s Cross, near Durham. English capture David II, King of Scotland. The English capture Calais. Calais surrenders to Edward III. 1347 England makes truce with France. The English will hold Calais until 1558. Death of Louis IV, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He is succeeded by Charles IV of Luxembourg. 1347 Reign of Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV. 1347-1378 Famine in Italy destroys almost one third of the population. 1347 Starvation is followed by plague. Thousands perish. In Rome, Cola di Rienzi (1313-1354), rebels against the Church and the nobles, and attempts to re-establish the ancient Roman Republic. 1347 He rules Rome briefly as “Tribune of the People” (April-December). He will be decapitated by the Romans in 1354. Outbreak of the Black Death (bubonic plague) in the east. 1347 The Bubonic Plague, still known as the Black Death, strikes Cyprus from Eastern Asia. 1347 Possibly from India. The plague begins to rapidly spread westward towards Europe (1348). Birth of Saint Catherine of Siena (1347-1381). March 25, 1347 John V Paleologus marries Helena Cantacuzene (daughter of John Cantacuzene). 1347 John VI Cantacuzene (b.1292-d.1383). He displaces John V Paleologus. John VI Cantacuzene becomes anti-emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 1347 He is aided by the Ottoman Turkish Empire. John VI Cantacuzene rules 1347-1354. Isidore I Buchiras. Hesychast (Hesychasm) Patriarch of Constantinople. 1347-1350 A convoy of Genoese galleys, believed to have come from the Crimea, limps into Messina, Sicily guided by dying men. October 1347 The ships are ordered out of the harbor, but it is already too late. The Messinans flee, spreading the bubonic plague throughout Sicily. The Bubonic Plague rapidly spreads to the rest of Europe in one year by 1348. 1347 The plague will wipe out about one third of the population of Europe (1348-1350 are the worst years) by 1350. Within 25 years, the plague kills about two thirds of the total population of Europe and Asia (this is about 75 million people). This bubonic plague is considered by many to be one of the greatest disasters in the history of the world. Ireland and Cyprus are ravaged by the Bubonic Plague. 1347 The Byzantine Empire is devastated by the Bubonic Plague. 1348 Bubonic Plague breaks out in Italy. 1348 Bubonic Plague in Siena. 80,000 people die. 1348 Black Death breaks out in France. 1348 Europe is ravaged by the Bubonic Plague. 1348-1351 Also called the Black Death. The Black Death reaches England. August 1348 Plague rages there for three years. One third of the population of England dies. In London alone, 200 persons are buried daily. Magnus, King of Sweden, invades Russia. 1348 The Prussians defeat the Lithuanians at Strawe. 1348 Charles IV. Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Founds the University of Prague. 1348 Edward III, King of England. Founds the “Order of the Garter”. 1348 Karlstein Castle. Czechoslovakia. 1348 Built for Emperor Charles IV. Rise of the Flagellants in Germany and Italy. 1349 Bogdan Voda founds the independent principality of Moldavia. 1349 William of Ockham dies of the Bubonic Plague at Munich. 1349 St. Bridget of Sweden (c.1300-1373). Gathers a group of fellow pilgrims and leaves Sweden (never to return) and leaves for Rome. 1349 As she leaves, Sweden is struck by the bubonic plague (“Black Death”). Two thirds of the inhabitants of Norway die, half as many in Sweden. Stephen IV Dushan. Issues Serbian code of law. 1349 This is the earliest monument of the Serbian language. Death of Philippe VI, King of France. 1350 He is succeeded by his son Jean (John) II the Good (Valois). John II rules 1350-1364. Thais from Southern China establish a kingdom in what is now called Thailand. 1350 Cathedral at Palma, Majorca. 1350 Completion of Bergamo Cathedral. 1350 Completion of Salisbury Cathedral. 1350 Nardo di Cione. Italian. “Last Judgement”. Fresco. 1350 “Paradise.” Fresco. c.1350 “Hell.” Fresco. 1350 Unknown Bohemian Master. “Death of the Virgin.” Panel painting. 1350-1360 Edward III, King of England. Begins to rebuild Windsor Castle. 1350 The Scots assemble in order to attempt another invasion of England. 1350 The Scots attempt to despoil the plague stricken land of their neighbors the English. Their plan backfires, however, and the Black Death spreads from England into Scotland. John VI, Cantacuzene, the Byzantine anti-emperor. Captures Thessalonica. 1350 Famine follows the Bubonic Plague in France. 1350-1355 A small cask of herring sells for 30 golden crowns. Thousands perish. Peter, the Cruel (b.1334-d.1369). King of Castile and León. 1350-1369 During the spread of the “Black Death” (1347-1354) pogroms take place in France, Spain, Austria, Poland, and especially Germany. 1347-1349 Charles IV. Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Imprisons Cola di Rienzi in Prague. 1350 Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) meets Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) for the first time. 1350 Barna da Siena. “Pact of Judas with the Jews”. Fresco. 1350 “Betrayal of Christ”. Fresco. 1350 Nicole Oresme (c1320-1382). “De Uniformitate et Difformitate”. c.1350 Discusses change and the rate of change quantitatively. Studies uniform motion, motion with varying velocity, and motion with constant acceleration. Petrarch (1304-1374). Italian. “Epistle to Posterity.” Autobiography. 1351 Russia is ravaged by the Black Death. 1351 Greek Church council accepts Hesychasm and Hesychastic practices. Condemns Anti-Hesychasm and all Anti-Hesychasts. 1351 Nicephorus Gregoras. Condemned by the Greek Church for his Anti-Hesychast position. 1351 Winfrich von Kniprode. Grand Master of the Teutonic Order. 1351-1382 Leads the Teutonic Order in the Lithuanian Crusade against paganism throughout the Lithuanian territory. The Lithuanian pagans practice human sacrifice to their false gods. Cola di Rienzi is extradited to Rome. 1352 Ranulf Higden. English author, historian, and scholar. “Polychronicon.” A universal history. 1352 Founding of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. 1352 Antwerp Cathedral. Antwerp, Belgium. 1352-1411 The largest of Belgian churches. Begun (1352). Nicholas Alexander. Prince of Walachia. 1352-1364 Stevan Dušan (d.1355). King of Serbia. Defeats a Hungarian invasion and captures Belgrade. 1353 John VI Cantacuzene. Byzantine anti-emperor. Employs Ottoman Turks to help defeat the Serbians. 1353 Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375). Italian. Completes the “Decameron” (begun in 1348). 1353 Statute of Praemunire. England. 1353 English Parliament forbids appeals of English clergy to the Pope. England and France. Great famine. Thousands perish. 1353 Ivan II. Grand Duke of Moscow. 1353-1359 Philotheos Kokkinos. Hesychast Patriarch of Constantinople. 1353 From 1353 to 1354, 1354, and then again from 1364 to 1376. Andrea Orcagna (real name is Andrea di Cione). Italian painter. “The Altarpiece of the Redeemer”. Strozzi Chapel. 1354-1357 “Enthroned Christ with Virgin Mary and Saints.” Panel painting. Orkhan I (son of Osman I). Fall of Gallipoli to the Ottoman Turkish moslems. The Ottoman Turks establish themselves in Europe at Gallipoli. 1354 They begin overrunning Thrace (see 1346). Earthquake. Gallipoli is wrecked. March 1354 Stephen Dushan, the great Serbian leader, takes Adrianople (Edirne) from the Byzantine Empire on his thrust toward Constantinople. 1355 John Paleologus enters the arsenal at Constantinople. 1354 Anti-emperor John VI Cantacuzene, after a reign of 13 years, is finally forced to abdicate. Demetrius Cydones. Byzantine Greek. Completes his translation of the “Summary Against the Gentiles” written by St. Thomas Aquinas, from Latin into Greek. 1354 As a result of his reading the writings of Aquinas, Demetrius Cydones rejects Hesychasm (Hesychastic Controversy). Cydones leaves the Greek Church, and enters the Roman Catholic Church. Andrea Orcagna (fl.1344-1368). Italian painter. “St. Lawrence saving the Soul of Emperor Henry II.” 1354-1357 Death of Stephan IV Dushan, ruler of Serbia. Dec. 1355 Gospel Book of Tsar Ivan Alexander. Bulgaria. 1355-1356 Illustrated manuscript by the monk, Symeon. Contains 366 miniature paintings of scenes from the New Testament. Cola di Rienzi is finally killed by a mob in Rome after making another attempt to establish tyranny. 1354 Charles IV of Luxembourg is crowned Emperor at Rome. 1355 Renewal of the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) fought between England and France. 1355 Edward the Black Prince, the eldest son of Edward III, King of England, lays waste western France. English forces enter Brittany and Artois. 1355 The Scots defeat the English at Nesbit. Aug. 1355 St. Mary’s Church, Nuremberg. Begun. 1355 Nicole Oresme (c.1320-1382). Bishop of Lisieux. “Algorismus Proportionem”. c.1355 Introduces both a notation and some computation with fractional exponents. Battle of Poitiers. 1356 Part of the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453). 7,000 English under Edward the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III of England, defeat 20,500 French under John II, King of France, at Poitiers. English capture Jean II of France and his son Philip the Bold. The French are completely routed with a loss of 4,600 men. English losses are very small. English conquer almost all of the Southern French lands. The French king is unable to continue the war. Forces of the Ottoman Turkish Empire move further westward into Europe. 1356 Edward Balliol cedes the crown of Scotland to Edward III of England. 1356 John Wyclif (c.1330-1384). English. Publishes his “Last Age of the Church.” 1356 Wycliff rejects the Real Presence. Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV. 1356 Regulates the future election of German kings. Golden Bull provides a new constitution for the Holy Roman Empire (will last until 1806). Chu Yüan-chang, recaptures Nanking from the Mongols. 1356 Marks the beginning of Chinese rebellion against Mongol rule. Barna da Siena. Italian. “Jesus Christ Carrying the Cross.” Fresco painting. 1356 The Jacquerie in France. 1357-1358 Peasant uprising in Paris against the Dauphin, is led by Etienne Marcel and Robert le Coq. Consecration of the Cathedral of Cologne. Sept. 26, 1357 Peter I. King of Portugal. 1357-1367 Accidental death of Suleiman, son of Orhan, in Thrace. 1357 Gregory Palamas, Greek Hesychast (Hesychasm), dies. 1358 Great “dearth” in England. 1358 Thousands perish. Treaty of London. 1359 Edward III, King of England, and his captive Jean II, King of France (captured in 1356 at the Battle of Poitiers) agree to the restoration to the English crown of French territories that were once held by Henry II of England. French nobles crush “Jacquerie” uprising by French peasants. 1358 Suppressed by the Regent Charles, son of John II, King of France. Assassination of Etienne Marcel caused by his exorbitance. The French Estates General rejects the Treaty of London. Nov. 1359 Edward III, King of England, invades northern France once again. English campaign in France. 1359 Devastation of the invading army of Edward III, King of England, in France by lightning and hailstorm at Chartres, France. 1359 1,000 are killed; 6,000 horses are also killed. Murad I. Third ruler of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. 1359-1389 Murad I renews the moslem onslaught on Thrace. Conquest of Ankara by forces of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. 1359 Lorenzo Veneziano (d.1372). Italian. “The Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine.” Painting. 1359 Beginning of work on the nave of St. Stephen’s in Vienna. 1359 Dimitri IV Donski. Grand Duke of Moscow. 1360-1389 Treaty of Guillon. Jan. 1360 Between Edward III, King of England, and Philip of Burgundy. Treaty of Brétigny. May 1360 Ends the first part of the Hundred Years’ War. French promise land and money to ransom their King Jean II. Edward III, King of England, gives up his claim to the throne of France. Leo Pilatus. Becomes the first teacher of Greek, at Florence, Italy. 1360 Timur. Appealing to the Koran, the heir presumptive of Gengis Khan, Timur (the Lame) or Tamerlane (1336-1405), a Mongolian chieftain of Central Asia, proclaims himself to be the renewal of the Mongol Empire. 1360 Nicolas Oresme (b.c.1320-d.1382). Bishop of Lisieux, France. “Tractatus de figuratione potentiarum et mensurarum.” c.1360 Describes an early precursor to analytic geometry, calculus, and the fourth dimension. Giovanni da Milano. Italian. “Saint Francis of Assisi.” Painted on Wood. 113 x 39 cm. c.1360 Organization of the Janissary corps (Janissaries) by Murad I of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. 1361 Andrea Vanni (c.1332-1414). Italian. “The Agony in the Garden.” Painting. c.1361 Henry Suso, aka Henrich Seuse (c.1295-1366). German. Writes the first German prose autobiography. 1362 Re-founding of the University of Pavia, Italy. 1361 Destruction of the city of Koty, Japan, by earthquake. 1361 Thousands perish. Reappearance of the bubonic plague in Paris, France. 1361-1362 Thousands perish. Reappearance of the bubonic plague in England. 1361-1362 Thousands perish. Murad I. Ottoman Turkish sultan. c.1361-1389 Expansion of the Ottoman Turkish Empire under Sultan Murad I. Murad I will complete the conquest of Asia Minor and the Balkans (most of what is now Yugoslavia and Bulgaria). Danish-German War. 1362 Waldemar (Valdemar) IV of Denmark defeats German fleet at The Battle of Helsingborg. Urban V. Pope. 1362-1370 Prussian Knights and crusaders capture Kaunas. 1362 Fall of Adrianople (modern day Edirne). 1362 The Ottoman Turks under Murad I take Adrianople by assault. Adrianople, 130 miles from Constantinople, will be made the capital of the Ottoman Turkish Empire in the year 1366. Edward, the Black Prince (1330-1376). Rules Acquitaine. 1363-1372 Tamerlane (Timur the Lame), Mongol leader. Begins the conquest of Asia. 1363 Francesco Traini. “Apotheosis of Thomas Aquinas.” Altarpiece. 1363 Philip the Bold (1342-1404). Receives Burgundy from his father John II, King of France. 1363 Becomes Duke of Burgundy (1364-1404). Guillaume de Machaut (1300-1377). “Mass for Four Voices.” 1364 Composed for the coronation of Charles V at Rheims. The Aztecs of Mexico build their capital, Tenochtitlan. 1364 University of Cracow (Poland). 1364 Founded by Casimir III of Poland. John (Jean) II, King of France, returns voluntarily to captivity in England following a breach of ransom terms. He will die there. 1364 Charles V, the Wise, (b.1337-d.1380) becomes King of France on the death in London of his father Jean II, in captivity. Apr. 1364 Charles V rules 1364-1380. Vladislav Vlaicu. Prince of Walachia. 1364-1377 Urban V urges continued war on paganism throughout Lithuania. 1364 Nicole Oresme (b.c.1320-d.1382). Bishop of Lisieux, Normandy. “Tractatus De Latitudinibus Formarum.” (“Latitude of Forms”). c.1364 Introduces early beginnings of Analytic Geometry. Probably influenced Rene Descartes. Giovanni da Milano. Italian painter. “The Raising of Lazarus from the dead.” Fresco. 1365 “Pietà.” Panel. 1365 St. Bridget of Sweden (1300-1373). 1365-1367 Spends two years in Naples, Italy, from July 1365-October 1367. Founding of the University of Vienna by Rudolf IV. 1365 This is the first university to be established on German speaking territory. William Langland (c.1332-1400) of Malvern. “The Vision of Piers the Plowman.” First of three versions. c.1365 Written in Middle English. Andrea da Firenze (Andrea di Bonaiuto). Active 1343-1377. Frescoes at Santa Maria Novella. Florence. c.1366-1368 The following paintings are included. “The Road to Calvary.” “The Crucifixion.” “The Descent into Hell.” “The Navicella.” (St. Peter saved from drowning). “The Resurrection.” “The Ascension.” “Pentecost.” “Scenes from the Life of St. Peter Martyr.” “Triumph of Saint Thomas Aquinas over the heretics Arius, Mahomet, and Averhoës.” “Allegory of the Dominican Order.” “The Triumph of the God-Christ over the world.” Petrarch. Italian. Writes “Canzoniere.” 1366 Murad I, Sultan of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. Makes Adrianople the capital of the Ottoman Turkish Empire in Europe, replacing Bursa. 1366 The Ottoman capital will be Adrianople until 1453 when Constantinople is destroyed and conquered. English Parliament refuses to pay dues to the Church. 1366 Cardinal Albornoz reconquers the Papal States. 1367 Battle of Navarrete (also called the Battle of Nájera). April 3, 1367 Anglo-French rivalry in Castile. Pedro II, the Cruel, King of Castile and León, supported by 24,000 English under Edward, the Black Prince, of England, defeat 60,000 French and Spanish under Enrique of Trastamara and Bertrand du Guesclin at Navarrete, in northern Spain. Ferdinand I. King of Portugal. 1367-1383 Plague, famine, and disease again in London, England. 1367 Thousands perish. Plague, famine, and disease again in Paris, France. 1367 Thousands perish. Confederation of Cologne. 1367 A confederation of 77 Hanse towns prepare for struggle with Valdemar, King of Denmark. Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor. Urges Pope Urban V to leave Avignon, in order to return the papacy to Rome from Avignon (where it had been for half a century), despite the opposition from the French court and cardinals. April 30, 1367 Pope Urban V leaves Avignon and returns to Rome. October 16, 1367 St. Vincent Ferrer (b.1350-d.1419). Joins the Dominican Order. 1367 Nino Pisano (c.1315-1368). Italian sculptor. c.1367 Statues of Saint John the Apostle and Saint Paul. Charles IV comes to Rome in order to be crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. 1368 John Wycliffe. Treatise “De Domino.” 1368 Ming Dynasty in China. 1368 Fall of the Yüan Dynasty (Mongol dynasty) in China. Chu Yüan-Chang, leads a rebellion and drives the last Mongol Emperor from Peking. He establishes a new national dynasty with its capital at Nanking. The Mongol (Yüan) Dynasty in Peking, China falls ending in anarchy. Yüan Dynasty is succeeded by the Ming Dynasty (lasts until 1644). End of the influence of Christianity (Roman Catholicism) in China, whose center had been Peking. Toghon Temür Khan flees but is later killed. Ming Dynasty in China. 1368-1644 Resumption of the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453). 1369-1376 John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and fourth son of Edward III, King of England, leads a cavalry raid into France from Calais. Second stage of the war between England and France begins. 1369 Third plague to strike London and Paris in decade. 1369 Thousands perish. Timurlane. 1369 Becomes king of Transoxiana. Tamerlane (Timur the Lame). Ascends throne of Samarkand (-1405) which he makes the capital of his new empire. Assumes the title of Great Khan. 1369 Reign of Tamerlane (aka Timur the Lame) Mongol leader begins. Rules 1369-1405. 1369 Builds his strength in Central Asia. John V, Byzantine Emperor, and his immediate followers visit the Pope. They convert to Roman Catholicism. 1369 Barna da Siena. Italian. “Crucifixion.” Painting. 1369 Repulsion of Hungarian invasion by Venice. 1369 Building of the Bastille, Paris, France. 1369-1382 Urban V (b.1310-d.1370). Aug. 5, 1370 Approves St. Bridget’s constitution for the Brigettines, while he is in Rome. Battle of Montiel (in modern day Ciudad Real). 1369 Peter the Cruel, King of Castile and León, is defeated and killed by Henry of Trastamara. Henry II (Henry of Trastamara). King of Castile and León. Supported the French in the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453). 1369-1379 Amsterdam joins the Hanseatic League. 1369 Pope Urban V decides to return to Avignon. September 16, 1370 He returns despite the warning of St. Bridget of Sweden that he would die an early death if he left Rome, and went back to Avignon. Pope Urban V dies at Avignon, three months after he left Rome to return to Avignon. December 19, 1370 Pope Gregory XI. 1370-1378 Death of Casimir III, the Great, of Poland. 1370 Casimir III is the last of the House of Piasts (c.840-1370), Poland’s first dynasty. Louis I of Hungary (Angevin) is elected king (rules to 1382). The Polish crown passes to Hungary during the reign of Louis I. Angevin Dynasty rules in Poland 1370-1399. Edward, the Black Prince of England, sacks Limoges in France. 1370 Knights of the Teutonic Order defeat Lithuanian pagans at Rudau. 1370 Karlshof Church. Prague. 1370 Built for Charles IV by Peter Parler. Charterhouse, London. 1370 Built by the monks of the Carthusian Order. Plague throughout Ireland. 1370 Thousands perish. Tombs of Inez de Castro and Peter I. c.1370 An example of Portuguese Gothic sculpture. Expulsion of the Jews from Flanders. 1370 Marriage of John of Gaunt with the daughter of Pedro the Cruel. 1370 Revolt in France. 1371 Edward, the Black Prince, is forced to return back to England. In England, parliament dismisses the chancellor, William of Wykeham (who is also Bishop of Winchester), and declares that a layman should hold the position. 1371 Jean Froissart. French. Completes “Chronicles.” Book One. 1371 English defeat the Flemings off Bourgneuf. 1371 Failure of Edward III, King of England, to invade France. 1371 The landing is prevented by powerful contrary winds. Robert II. King of Scotland (Stuart). 1371-1390 Founds the Stuart line of Kings in Scotland. The Stuart line will rule in Scotland from 1371 until 1625. Ming Dynasty in China (founded in 1368) drives the last Mongols from Szechuan. 1371 Battle of Maritsa River. Sept. 26, 1371 (Also known as Battle of Chernomen). A small Ottoman force under Lala Sahin Pasha defeat the Serbians on the Maritsa River, near Adrianople. Ottoman Turks commanded by Murad I kill 50,000 of the large 70,000 man Serbian army. Saint Bridget of Sweden (1300-1373). Sets off on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. November 25, 1371 Her children Catherine, Karl, and Birger accompany her. St. Bridget of Sweden (1300-1373). She arrives at the city of Jerusalem. May 1372 Oxford University. Becomes the religious (Christian) center of England. 1372 John Wycliffe (c.1330-1384). English. Receives his doctorate degree at the University of Oxford. 1372 French defeat the English. 1372 French troops recapture Poitiers and Brittany. Naval Battle of La Rochelle. June 22, 1372 (Part of the Hundred Years’ War, 1337-1453) French and Castillian fleets defeat the English fleet off La Rochelle, France. The English fleet is entirely destroyed or captured. The French regain control of the English Channel. Lorenzo Veneziano. Italian. “The Virgin Mary and Child.” Painting. Wood. 126 cm. x 56 cm. 1372 St. Bridget of Sweden (1300-1373) returns back to Rome from the city of Jerusalem. 1373 Death of St. Bridget of Sweden (1300-1373) while she is in Rome. “Revelationes” (her autobiography). July 23, 1373 In the Hundred Years’ War, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and son of Edward III of England, leads a new English invasion of France. 1373 John of Gaunt leads a cavalry raid through France from Calais to Bordeaux. Pope Gregory XI. Crusade against the Mohammedans is proclaimed. 1373 Death of St. Andrea Corsini (1302-1373). Carmelite Order. Jan. 6. 1373 Agnolo Gaddi. Italian. Santa Croce, Florence. “Episodes from the Story of the Holy Cross.” Fresco. c.1374 Charles V, King of France. Sets up an organized system and chain of command in his French army. 1374 John of Gaunt, son of Edward III, King of England, returns to England. Allied with his father’s mistress, Alice Perrers, he effectively takes control of the government. 1374 Edward III is in his dotage, the Black Prince is ill (dies 1376). By 1374, France regains lands that had been lost to England. 1374 Jacopo Avanzo. Italian. “Liberation of the Companions of St. James.” Fresco painting. c.1374 Desolation of Italy by famine. 1374 Thousands perish. Petrarch dies from the plague. 1374 Death of Boccaccio. 1375 St. Catherine of Siena (1347-1380). Stigmatica, ecstatica. St. Catherine receives a vision and receives the stigmata while she is on a visit to Pisa. 1375 Fall of Sis, the capital of Armenia Minor, to the Mamelukes. 1375 End of the independence of Armenia. Stefano da Venezia (fl.1360-1385). Italian. “The Coronation of the Virgin Mary.” Panel painting. c.1375 Robert of Geneva leads 6,000 cavalry and 4,000 infantry and subdues Florence and Bologna with great brutality. 1375 Truce of Bruges. June 1375 Part of the Hundred Years’ War. England and France agree to end of hostilities at Bruges (Flanders). English are confined to Bordeaux, Bayonne, and Calais. John Barbour (c.1320-1395). Scotland. “Brus.” Poem on the life of Robert Bruce. Historically accurate. 1375 Edward, the Black Prince. Calls the “Good Parliament”. 1376 Attempts to introduce changes in government. Death of Edward, the Black Prince, age 45, heir to the throne of England. 1376 John Wycliffe. English (at Oxford). “Civil Dominion.” 1376 Asserts that the Church should not own property. John Wycliffe supports a bill in parliament declaring it sinful for clergy to hold property. Wycliffe rejects Transubstantiation. John Wycliffe (ca.1330-1384). English. Wycliffe and his followers begin the first translation of the Vulgate Bible into English vernacular. c.1376-1382 Excommunication of John Ball, English priest. 1376 Later, Ball, will be a leader in the Peasant Revolt of Wat Tyler (see 1381). St. Catherine of Siena (1347-1380). 1376 Catherine decides that if the pope would return to Italy voluntarily, she would personally go to Avignon to get him. She goes to Avignon, and convinces the Pope that he must return to Rome. Wenceslas, son of Charles IV, crowned King of the Romans. 1376

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Earthquake. Hondo, Japan. March 16, 1914 Mexican seizure of a United States ship in Tampico Harbor during the Mexican Revolution. 1914 Woodrow Wilson sends United States fleet to Tampico, Mexico. 1914 United States Marines land at Tampico, Mexico. 1914 United States Marines occupy Vera Cruz, Mexico. April 21, 1914 (April 21-Nov. 23) Victoriano Huerta is elected President of Mexico. July 5, 1914 Victoriano Huerta, President of Mexico, resigns. July 15, 1914 End of the Vera Cruz incident. United States recognizes the government of Venustiano Carranza, the new president of Mexico. 1914 Destruction of Salem, Massachusetts by fire. June 25-26, 1914 Peace Treaty between Serbia and the Ottoman Turkish Empire. 1914 Assassination of the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, and his wife, in Sarajevo, the capital of the Austrian province of Bosnia, by Garrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist. Austria believes that Serbia is responsible for the murder. June 28, 1914 Outbreak of World War I (June 28, 1914-Nov. 11, 1918). June 28, 1914 William II, Emperor of Germany, promises German support to Austria-Hungary if any actions are taken against Serbia. July 5, 1914

John VI. King of Portugal. 1816-1826 Was regent from 1792. Union of Portugal and Brazil under John VI, King of Portugal. 1816 Founding of the American Bible Society in New York City. 1816 Flood. Germany. March 21, 1816 Overflow of the Vistula causes submersions. Number of thousands dead is unknown. The Kingdoms of Sicily and Naples are ruled jointly as the “Kingdom of the Two Sicilies”. Formally created by the unification of Naples and Sicily under one crown. 1816 Lasts until 1860, when the kingdom is conquered by G. Garibaldi. Will be joined with northern states to form the Kingdom of Italy (1861). Bourbons again resume the throne. Spanish authority is reestablished in Mexico. 1816 Severe famine throughout Ireland. 1816-1817 600,000 perish. Typhus epidemic. Ireland. 1816-1819 One fourth of the population is killed. James Monroe (1758-1851). Elected 5th President of the United States. 1816 Second Bank of the United States is chartered. 1816 British Admiral goes to Tunis and Tripoli and demands that both states end the practice of Christian slavery. He then goes to Algiers for same purpose. The Mohammedans kill dozens of Italians living in Oran and Bone. 1816 Admiral Edward Pellew (Viscount Exmouth) leads a joint British-Dutch naval force of 24 battleships and sails into Algiers harbor. 1816 Bombardment of Algiers by England. 1816 Caused by continued acts of piracy by the Mohammedans. The next day the Bey is forced to release all Christian slaves (1,642) from Algiers, and to abolish Christian slavery. United Provinces of Rio de la Plata (now part of Argentina) declare their independence from Spain. 1816 Juan Martin de Pueyrredon is director (1816-1819). Capture of Uruguay by the Portuguese from Brazil. 1816-1820 Carl August of Saxe-Weimar grants first constitution in Germany. 1816 Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868). Italian. 1816 “Il Barbiere de Siviglia.” Opera. (“The Barber of Seville”). “Otello.” Opera. 1816 Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1722-1834). English. “Kublai Khan.” Poetry. 1816 Written 1797. Louis Spohr (1784-1859). German composer. “Faust.” Opera. 1816 San Francesco di Paola, Naples. 1816-1824 By Pietro Bianchi (1787-1849). Italian architect.

The Annunciation of the coming birth of Jesus Christ. c. 1 BC Birth of John the Baptist. c. 1 BC Probable year of the birth of the Lord Jesus Christ at Bethlehem in what was then Roman Palestine. c. 1 BC The Circumcision of Christ eight days after his birth in accordance with Jewish law. c. 1 BC Presentation of Jesus in the temple forty days after his birth in accordance with Jewish law. c.1 BC The Visit of the Magi. c. 1 BC The Flight into Egypt. c. 1 BC The Massacre of the Innocents. c. 1 BC Herod “the Great” orders all of the male children age two and under to be killed. Death of Herod “the Great”. c. 1 BC Herod dies in great agony from a loathsome disease, which drove him to try to kill himself. Herod Antipas, the son of Herod “the Great”, rules outside Judaea, in Peraea and Galilee. 1 BC-39 AD Philip, a Herodian, rules in the northeastern areas. 1 BC-34 AD Development of Gothic kingdom on the lower Vistula River (located in modern day Poland). c. 1 BC Beginning of the Christian Era. 1 AD Augustus Gaius Caesar (63 BC-14 AD) meets with Phraates V, the King of Parthia, on the Euphrates River. Gaius Caesar concludes a peace with him. 2 AD “Aqua Alsietina”. Roman aqueduct is built. c. 3 AD The rule of Emperor Augustus is renewed for a ten year period. 3 AD Joseph and Mary return from Egypt with Jesus Christ and take up residence in Nazareth. c. 4 AD Second command of the Roman general Tiberius in Germany. 4-6 AD Phraataces, King of Parthia, is killed. 4 AD The crown is offered to Orodes III, King of Parthia. Nicolaus of Damascus. Greek historian and philosopher. “History of The World”. 15 volumes. 4 AD “Historia Universalis”. (“Universal History”). 144 volumes. Completed. Cunobelinus (Cymbeline), king of the Catuvellauni, is recognized by the Romans as “Rex Brittonum”, a king of Britain. 5 AD Cymbeline reigns in Britain (5-40 AD). Lombard tribes on the lower Elbe are defeated by Roman legions. 5 AD Emperor Gaius Augustus. Tired of Herodian misrule, establishes a procuratorship in Judaea. 6 AD The Romans depose Herod Archaelaus. Judea becomes a Roman Province. Romans appoint a Procurator to govern Judea. The Jewish Sanhedrin and the high priest are partially independent. Oponius is the first Procurator of Judaea. 6-9 AD Germanicus is sent into Germany. 7 AD Vonones I becomes king of the Parthian Empire. 8 AD Roman general Tiberius suppresses revolts against Roman rule in Dalmatia and Pannonia. 9 AD Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. 9 AD The destruction of three Roman legions under Publius Quintilius Varus during a German revolt of the Germanic tribe the Cherusci lead by Arminius in the Teutoburg Forest. Roman Province of Pannonia is established. 9 AD Secures the Danube frontier. Marcus Ambivulus is the second Procurator of Judaea. 9-12 AD Artabanus II becomes ruler of Parthia. 11 AD Germanicus. Secures Germania Inferior (lower) and the Rhine. 11 AD Overthrow of the Artaxiad Dynasty in Armenia by the Romans. 12 AD Jesus Christ, age 12, is at the Temple of Jerusalem questioning the priests and the rabbis during the feast of the Passover. 12 AD Annius Rufus is appointed the third Procurator of the Roman province of Judaea. 12 AD Annius Rufus is Procurator 12-15 AD. Thaddeus of Florence. “De virtutibus aquae vitae”. c. 12 AD (“On the Virtues of Alcohol”). Describes the medical uses of alcohol. Abgarus of Edessa is reinstalled as king of Osroene, also known as the kingdom of Edessa. 13 AD Death of Augustus Caesar (63 BC-14 AD) at Nola (age 76). 14 AD End of the reign of Augustus. Tiberius (Claudius Nero), step-son of Augustus, becomes Roman Emperor. Reign of Roman Emperor Tiberius. 14-37 AD Statue of Augustus. ca. 14-27 AD Emperor wearing breastplate with allegorical and historical reliefs. Pont du Gard, near Nîmes is built. c. 14 AD Greatest of all Roman aqueducts carries water along the top tier of arches about 180 feet above the river. Germanicus Caesar puts down revolt by the Pannonian legions. 14 AD Three expeditions of Germanicus against the Germans. 14-16 AD Near the mouths of the lower Rhine River, defeating Arminius. Valerius Gratus is the fourth Procurator (prefect) of the Roman province of Judaea since its conquest by Pompey. Valerius Gratus rules Judaea. 15-26 AD Germanicus launches a two pronged attack from Vetera and Moguntiacum. On his return he visits the battlefield of the Teutoburg Forest. 15 AD Germanicus arranges for the burial of the remains of the army of Varus. Germanicus, commanding a Roman army of 50,000 men, gains a great victory at Idistaviso. Germanicus defeats the German leader, Arminius. 16 AD Germanicus defeats the Germans at the Amasius river estuary and the Weser. 16 AD Germanicus Caesar claims Germania for Rome. 16 AD Emperor Tiberius orders Germanicus Caesar to return to Rome. 17 AD Germanicus returns to Rome. Rome celebrates his victories over the Cherusci, the Chatti, and other Germanic barbarian tribes west of the Elbe River. May 26, 17 AD Emperor Tiberius. Sends his nephew Germanicus to Armenia to supervise the installation of a new king and to lead a military campaign against Parthia. 17 AD Cappadocia (Asia Minor) becomes a Roman Province. 17 AD Sejanus becomes Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. 17 AD Josephus Caiaphas is made high priest (18-36) of the Jews in Jerusalem. He is appointed by the Romans. 18 AD Death of Germanicus Caesar in Syria. He was probably poisoned. 19 AD The Romans suppress a revolt against Roman rule among the Gallic tribes, the Treveri and the Aedui. 21 AD Impact of the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Sejanus, who moves the guard to a camp on the outskirts of Rome. His accusations lead to major public trials, executions, and suicides. 22-31 AD Lucius Aelius Sejanus reputedly poisons Tiberius’ son Drusus hoping to become emperor. 23 AD Strabo (64 BC-24 AD). Greek historian and philosopher. “Geographia” (Gr: “Geographica”). c. 23 AD Attempts to collect all known knowledge pertaining to Geography. Seventeen volumes. End of the Roman war with Numidia and Mauretania. Both territories are annexed by the Romans. 24 AD Pontius Pilate is appointed the fifth Procurator of the Roman province of Judaea since its conquest by Pompey. 26 AD Pontius Pilate rules Judaea 26-36 AD. Lucius Aelius Sejanus persuades Tiberius to retire to Capreae (Capri). Rome is left under the control of Sejanus, Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Tiberius still continues however, to govern in absence. 26 AD The Romans crush an uprising of Thracian tribesmen. 26 AD The Jewish prophet John the Baptist begins teaching and preaching. c. 27 AD An Arch of Triumph is erected at Rimini in honor of the former Roman Emperor Augustus. 27 AD The Baptism of Jesus Christ by John the Baptist. c. 30 AD The three temptations of Jesus Christ while he is forty days in the desert. c. 30 AD Annunciation of the Kingdom of God by the Lord Jesus Christ. 30 AD Aulus Cornelius Celsus. Roman medical writer. “De Re Medica” (“On Medical Matters”). c. 30 AD Murder of the Jewish Prophet John the Baptist during the reign of Herod Antipas (on Herod Antipas’ orders). c. 31 AD The Sermon on the Mount. c. 31 AD Fall and execution of Lucius Sejanus, the Praetorian Prefect, as a conspirator against the Emperor Tiberius. 31 AD The last week of Jesus Christ while he is in the flesh. ca. 33 AD Entry into Jerusalem and cleansing of the Temple of Jerusalem. Thursday: The Last Supper. The Betrayal of Christ. The arrest of Christ in the Garden of Gethsemane. Friday: The trial and conviction of the Lord Jesus Christ before the Jewish Sanhedrin at daybreak on Friday. He is brought to Pontius Pilate, to Herod, and then back to Pontius Pilate on Friday morning. Crucifixion of Jesus Christ in Jerusalem, at the age of 33, during the reign of the Roman Emperor Tiberius (9:00 AM Friday morning). c. 33 AD Darkness for three hours (12:00-3:00 PM). Death of Jesus (3:00 PM on Friday). The Veil (curtain) of the Temple of Jerusalem is torn in two. An earthquake in Jerusalem. Jesus is buried toward the evening. The tomb is sealed on Saturday. The Resurrection of Jesus Christ, Sunday at dawn, three days after his Crucifixion. c. 33 AD The Ascension of Christ, fifty days after the Resurrection. c. 33 AD Day of Pentecost. c. 33 AD The first community (Baptism and the Eucharist) fifty days after the Resurrection of Jesus Christ (Pentecost). The followers of Jesus Christ are led by Saint Peter the Apostle. Saint Peter the Apostle leads the Church. 34-67 AD Saul (the future St. Paul) persecutes the followers of Jesus Christ. Saul is sent by the High Council of the Jews to Damascus in order to fight and destroy the followers of Jesus Christ. 34-36 AD Saint Stephen. Killed by the Jews in Jerusalem. December 26, 34 AD First martyr of Jesus Christ. On this day, he completes his 34th year. Death of Herod Philip, the tetrarch. 34 AD Tiradates becomes king of Parthia (until 36 AD). 35 AD The Conversion of Saul. January 25, 36 AD On his way to Damascus, Saul (Paul) hears the voice of Jesus Christ. Pontius Pilate suppresses an uprising of the Samaritans (Samaria). 36 AD Pontius Pilate is ordered back to Rome in order to render an account for harshly suppressing Jewish uprising. 36 AD Judea had experienced over three years of rioting and chaos. Marcellus is made governor of Judaea and Samaria. 36 AD Death of Roman Emperor Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus. 37 AD He is succeeded by Tiberius Gemellus and Gaius Caesar Germanicus (“Caligula” or “Little Boot”) the youngest son of Germanicus. Caligula kills Tiberius Gemellus. Caligula is made Emperor of the Roman Empire. 37 AD Reign of Caligula. 37-41 AD With Caligula begins the enforced adoration of the emperor as the Supreme God. This will be the cause of the slaughter of tens of thousands of Christians until the reign of Constantine. First visit of Saul (now Paul) to the city of Jerusalem. c. 38 AD Three years after his conversion while he was on the road to Damascus, Paul travels to Jerusalem in order to meet St. Peter, the head of the twelve apostles and the head of the Church. Paul stays with Peter for fifteen days. Herod Agrippa, King of northern Palestine. 37-44 AD Caligula gives him two thirds of the former kingdom of Herod “the Great”. Birth of Nero (b.37-d.68). 37 AD Caligula becomes increasingly mentally unstable. 38 AD The gentile (that is, non-Jewish) Cornelius and his family are baptized by Saint Peter, the Head of the Church. c. 39 AD Caligula and Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo become Roman consuls. 39 AD Legio (Legion) XV Primigenia and Legio XXII Primigenia are levied for the German frontier. 39 AD The Jews drive out all Christians from the Jewish synagogues. ca. 40 AD One of the earliest Christian churches. Built at Corinth, Greece. 40 AD The evil emperor Caligula finally proclaims himself to be a god. 40 AD The Quadi, a barbarian Germanic tribe, settle in what is modern day Moravia and Slovakia. 40 AD Vardanes becomes King of Parthia. 40 AD He is opposed by Gotarzes II, his brother. St. Mark, the Evangelist, founds the church of Alexandria (Egypt). 40 AD St. James the Greater (meaning the older), one of the twelve Apostles is preaching in Roman Hispania (what is now Spain). 40 AD Martyrdom of St. James the Greater (the son of Zebedee). March 25, 41 AD He is condemned to death by Herod Agrippa I. He is beheaded. St. James the Greater is the first of the twelve Apostles to be martyred. Rome annexes Mauretania. 41 AD The evil regime of Caligula is finally ended with his murder by the Prefect of the Praetorians, Cassius Chaerea. Jan. 24, 41 AD Claudius is made emperor by the Praetorian Guard. Claudius succeeds Caligula as Roman Emperor. Jan. 25, 41 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Claudius I (Tiberius Claudius Nero). 41-54 AD Claudius is Caligula’s uncle and the son of Drusus. Emperor Claudius appoints Herod Agrippa I as king of Judaea. 41 AD Gives him the remaining one third of Judaea. Herod Agrippa I will be the last Jewish king of Judaea. He is appointed by the Romans (rules 41-44 AD). German tribes attack across the Rhine River into Roman territory. The barbarians are stopped by the Roman forces. 41 AD Saint Matthew the Apostle. “The Gospel of Matthew.” c. 42 AD St. Peter, the Apostle. After filling the see of Antioch for seven years, Peter goes to Rome. 42 AD St. Paul is bought to Antioch by St. Barnabas. c. 42 AD Desolation of Judea by a terrible famine. c. 42 AD Number of thousands of deaths is unknown. At Antioch, the followers of Jesus, are first called “Christians”. c. 42 AD After almost one hundred years after Julius Caesar invaded England, Emperor Claudius sends several Roman legions (20,000 Roman troops) under Aulus Plautius to complete the conquest of the island. 43 AD Battle of Medway River. 43 AD The Romans under Aulus Plautius defeat the Britons under Caractacus. Caractacus however escapes. Emperor Claudius lands in Britain and accepts the surrender of the Britons at Camulodunum (now Colchester). Claudius proclaims that the island is now a Roman province. The Roman occupation of Britain will continue for the next almost 400 years until 407 AD. Founding of Londinium (now London) by the Roman armies. 43 AD The Romans begin building the fortifications of Londinium. Caractacus (Caractus) attempts to revolt against the Roman armies that occupy England. 43-50 AD Caractacus is powerless to prevent the subjugation of England by the Roman armies. Herod Agrippa. Continues to persecute the followers of the Lord Jesus Christ that are in the city of Jerusalem. 43 AD St. Paul and St. Barnabas bring relief from the Antioch Christians to the church that is at Jerusalem where there is a famine. 44 AD Saint James the Less (meaning the Younger). Leads the followers of Jesus Christ that are in Jerusalem. 44 AD Herod Agrippa I, age 54, finally dies a horrible death. 44 AD Judaea once more becomes a procuratorial province of the Roman Empire. Saint Paul is sent out on his missionary journeys. 45 AD First journey of Paul and Barnabas to Asia Minor and Greece. 45-49 AD Circumcision and Jewish dietary laws are no longer observed by them. They go to Cyprus, Perga, Antioch in Pisidia, and the cities of Lycaonia. Establishment of the Roman province of Thrace. 46 AD Saint Mark. "The Gospel of Mark". 46 AD St. Paul is in South Galatia. 47-48 AD Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo. Made commander of the Roman army in Germania Inferior. 47 AD Corbulo conquers the Chauci and fights against the Cherusci and Frisians. Suppression of the Frisian revolt by Roman general Corbulo. 47 AD Publius Ostorius Scapula. Replaces Aulus Plautius as the Roman ruler (governor) of Britain. 47 AD Corbulo orders the construction of the canal Fossa Corbulonis, between the Rhine River and Meuse River in what is now called the Netherlands. Canal connects the city Forum Hadriani (Voorburg). 47 AD Romans build the Traiectum fortification near the mouth of the Rhine River. 47 AD Will later become the city of Utrecht. Ananias becomes the high priest of Israel in Judaea. 47 AD Saint Luke the Evangelist. "The Gospel of Luke". 48 AD Council of the Apostles of Jesus Christ at Jerusalem. c. 48 AD Saint Peter and the original apostles assume the missionary activity among the Jews who do not believe that Christ is the Messiah, Savior, and God. Paul and Barnabas are sent among the non-Jews (gentiles). Proclamation of independence from Jewish ritualistic law and proclamation of the Gratia Dei (the Grace of God). Roman legions invade Wales. 48 AD Flood. Thames River overflows in England. 10,000 perish. 48 AD Execution of Messalina, the wife of Emperor Claudius. 48 AD Claudius marries his niece Agrippina. Herod Agrippa II is made King of Judaea. 48 AD St. Paul begins writing his epistles (letters) to the gentiles (non-Jews). 48 AD St. Paul. “Epistle to the Galatians”. 48 AD St. Paul. Third visit to Jerusalem. 49 AD Second journey of St. Paul (St. Barnabas is with him). 49-52 AD Includes longer stays at Corinth (c. 50-52 AD) where Paul founds the Church of Corinth. Melankomas is the boxing champion of the 207th Olympic Games. 49 AD Publius Ostorius Scapula founds a “colonia” for Roman veterans of war, at Camulodunum (modern day Colchester). 49 AD Publius Scapula founds the city of Verulamium (modern day St. Albans). A Roman legion is retained on the borders of the Silures tribe of South Wales in preparation for invasion. Emperor Claudius expels the Christians from Rome. 49 AD Beginning of famine during the reign of Claudius. 49 AD Emperor Claudius adopts Nero, Agrippina's son by a previous marriage, as his successor. 50 AD The city of Cologne is founded by the Romans as “Colonia Agrippina”. It is built on the site of Oppidum Ubiorum, the chief town of the Ubii tribe. 50 AD Pedanios Dioscorides. Greek biologist and physician. “De Materia Medica”. Five volumes. c. 50 AD Includes a discussion of the medicinal properties of plants. Acqua Claudia. Aqueduct from the Campagna to Rome is built. 50 AD Death of Vonones II, after a few months on the throne. 50 AD Vologeses I, his son, becomes king of the Parthian Empire. Vologeses I rules 50-90 AD. Aurelius Cornelius Celsus. Roman. Provides a comprehensive encyclopedia including philosophy, rhetoric, oratory, military science, jurisprudence, medicine, agriculture, language, and history. c. 50 AD Founding of the city of Utrecht by the Romans. 50 AD The Romans build a bridge across the Thames River in what is now called London. 50 AD Arrival of Saint Paul at Corinth. 50 AD Saint Paul remains in Corinth for 18 months. 50-52 AD Saint Paul. “First Epistle to the Thessalonians”. c. 50 AD Saint Paul. “Second Epistle to the Thessalonians”. 51-52 AD Famine. Greece. 51 AD Number of thousands of deaths is unknown. Battle of Shropshire. 51 AD Roman troops led by Publius Ostorius Scapula defeat and capture Caractacus, the British defender of Southwest England, at Shropshire. Caractacus is taken to Rome in chains. Emperor Claudius decides to free Caractacus. Arrival of St. Thomas the Apostle at Kodungallur, on the Malabar Coast of India. 52 AD Publius Ostorius Scapula dies while he is campaigning against the Silure tribe in South Wales. 52 AD Scapula is replaced by Didius Gallus who quickly suppresses the rebellion. Parthia fights against Rome for the possession of Armenia Minor. 52 AD Seneca. Roman philosopher. “Quaestiones naturales”. c. 52 AD (“Natural Questions”). On physics, geography, astronomy, and meteorology. Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus). Born in Roman Novum Comum (Como) Italy. "Naturalis Historia". c. 52 AD (“History of Nature”). 37 volumes. On astronomy, biology, zoology, botany, and geography. Saint Paul. Sets out on his third missionary voyage (53-58 AD). 53 AD Travels to Asia Minor, Ephesus, Macedonia, Achaia, and Corinth. St. Paul is in Ephesus. c. 53-54 AD St. Evodius (d.c. 64). Succeeds Saint Peter the Apostle as the Bishop of Antioch. 53 AD St. Paul. Second journey to Corinth. c. 54-58 AD Death of Emperor Claudius (probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina). Nero, the son of Agrippina, becomes Emperor. 54 AD Reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. 54-68 AD Nero (b.37-d.68) is the last of the Julio-Claudian line of Roman Emperors. His full name is Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus. Nero destroys Britannicus and all of the Julian family. Domitius Corbulo marches his legions (Legio VI Ferrata and Legio X) into the mountains of Cappadocia (Asia Minor) and makes camp there. 54 AD Part of the training of his men consists of marches of 25 miles. Famine. England. 54 AD Number of thousands dead is unknown. Rome sends general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo to subdue Parthia. c. 55 AD Death of the Virgin Mary. c. 55 AD St. Paul. “First Epistle to the Corinthians”. Written from Ephesus. 55 AD Revolt of the Egyptians. 55 AD St. Paul. “Second Epistle to the Corinthians”. Written. 56 AD St. Paul. “Epistle to the Romans”. Written while he is at Corinth. c. 56 AD Quintus Veranius Nepos. Becomes governor of Britain in place of Aulus Didius Gallus. 57 AD St. Agabus meets St. Paul at Caesarea Maritima and prophesizes that Paul will be captured by the Jews at Jerusalem. 58 AD St. John the Apostle. "The Gospel of John". 58 AD Return of St. Paul to Jerusalem in order to report on his activities. c. 58 AD The arrest of St. Paul in Jerusalem. 58 AD The imprisonment of Paul in Caesarea. St. Paul of Tarsus. “Epistle to the Colossians”. c.59 AD Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo invades Armenia. c. 58 AD Roman war with the Armenians and the Parthians. Roman conquest of Armenia. 58-63 AD Nero has his mother Agrippina killed. 59 AD Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, Roman governor of Britain. Captures the island of Mona (Anglesley), which is the last stronghold of the Druids (Druidism). 60 AD Hero of Alexandria. Writes “Mechanica” (Mechanics), and “Pneumatica” (Pneumatics). c. 60 AD Emperor Claudius prohibits Druidism throughout the Roman Empire. The Romans detested the Druid practice of human sacrifice. 60 AD St. Paul is arrested and imprisoned by Felix, the Procurator of Judaea. 60 AD Porcius Festus succeeds Felix as the Procurator of Judaea. 60 AD Saint Paul. Brought to trial before Porcius Festus, the Procurator of Judaea. Paul appeals to Rome. 60 AD Paul appeals to the judgment of the Emperor of Rome. He is freed. c. 60 AD St. Paul is taken to Rome, but is shipwrecked on the island of Malta. Paul remains for three months on Malta and converts Publius, the first Bishop of Malta. c. 60 AD Paul sets foot for the first time on Italian soil. He is under official Imperial auspices with a sympathetic Roman military escort. Spring 60 AD Martyrdom of Saint Andrew the Apostle in the city of Patras. He is crucified on an “X” shaped cross. November 30, 60 AD Heron of Alexandria. "Metrica" (“Measurements”). 60 AD Contains formulas for the calculation of areas and volumes. The Revolt of Boudicca (also Boadicea), 61-62 AD. 61 AD Boadicea, queen of the Iceni (modern Norfolk) tribe in Britain descends on the undefeated town of Camulodunum (modern Colchester). The tribesmen massacre the Roman settlers and the Britons who were on the side of the Romans. Boadicea, leads her rebels, and sweeps down on Londinium (early London). They massacre all of the inhabitants. 61 AD Boadicea turns northeast to Verulamium (modern Saint Albans). They massacre all of the inhabitants. By now they have massacred approximately 80,000 people. 61 AD Suetonius Paulinus, governor of Roman Britain, leads two Roman legions (10,000 men) and makes a forced march from Wales to Verulamium. Paulinus directs a coordinated attack on Boadicea’s horde. Roman discipline defeats the savage horde. Almost 80,000 of the horde are killed by the Romans. Boadicea is finally totally defeated by the Roman governor of Britain Gaius Suetonius Paulinus. She takes poison and dies. 61 AD St. Paul. "Epistle to the Philippians". c. 61 AD Martyrdom of Saint Barnabas. 61 AD Barnabas is stoned to death at Salamis, in Cyprus. Nero (b.37-d.68) divorces and exiles his wife, Octavia. 62 AD Nero has his wife Octavia killed. Nero marries Poppaea Sabina, the wife of his friend Otho. Seneca the Younger (c.5 BC-65 AD). Roman philosopher. Resigns from his position at Nero's court. 62 AD Romans are defeated by the Parthians at Rhandeia in Armenia. 62 AD St. James the Less (meaning the younger). Writes the "Epistle of James". c. 62 AD Martyrdom of Saint James the Less (meaning the younger). 62 AD Saint James the Less was the first Bishop of Jerusalem. He is thrown from the pinnacle of the Temple of Jerusalem by the Pharisees. He is stoned, and then finally clubbed to death. The surviving Apostles elect St. Simeon (d.107), the brother of Saint James the Less, to succeed him as the Bishop of Jerusalem. St. Paul is released from prison in Rome. 62 AD He is allowed to stay in Rome but he is under house arrest. St. Paul of Tarsus. "Epistle to the Ephesians". c. 63 AD St. Paul. Revisits Ephesus, Macedonia, and Greece. 63-67 AD Vespasian becomes governor of Roman Africa. 63 AD Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo invades Armenia and defeats Tiridates I. Tiridates I accepts Roman sovereignty over Armenia. 63 AD Burning of Rome. July 19-25, 64 AD Emperor Nero watches while Rome burns. The city burns for eight days. Eleven out of the city's 15 districts are reduced to ashes. Nero (b.37-d.68), who is responsible for starting the fire, blames the Christians for the great fire that almost destroyed all of Rome. 64 AD Nero will rebuild the city of Rome. First persecution of Christians in Rome is begun by Nero. Continues until his death by suicide in 68 AD. Thousands of Christians are scourged, killed, burned, and tortured to death during the four year period (Neronian Persecution). Martyrdom of Saint Peter the Apostle. 64 AD St. Peter is crucified on the Mons Vaticanus. Nero is emperor at this time. Gessius Florus is 7th Roman Procurator of Judaea. 64-66 AD Phoenicia is incorporated into the Roman Province of Syria. 64 AD Phoenicia ceases to exist. Martyrdom of Saint Matthias. c. 65 AD He is stoned to death at Colchis. Matthias had been selected by the apostles to replace Judas Iscariot. Pisonian conspiracy led by Gaius Piso is uncovered. 65 AD Intended to get Nero, the degenerate emperor, out of the throne. Lucius Annaeus Seneca, also called Seneca the Younger (c.5 BC-65 AD). Roman Stoic philosopher. An advisor to the degenerate Roman Emperor, Seneca commits suicide at the order of Nero (b.37-d.68) after being falsely accused of conspiracy. 65 AD St. Mark. "The Gospel According to Saint Mark". c. 65 AD Death of Tigranes. End of the war between Parthia and the Romans when Tiridates accepts the crown of Armenia from Nero. 65 AD Outbreak of the Jewish War (66-70 AD). 66 AD Revolt of Roman Judaea against Roman rule. The Jews revolt against the rule of the Romans. 66 AD The Jews capture the fortress of Masada overlooking the Red Sea. Roman general Cestius Gallus marches into Judaea with an army of 30,000 men in order to put down the Jewish rebellion. 66 AD St. Paul of Tarsus. Arrested and returned to Rome. This is his second imprisonment at Rome. 67 AD Martyrdom of Saint Paul of Tarsus. Paul is beheaded on the road to Ostia. c. 67 AD Roman general Vespasian, now age 58, is sent to Judaea where he begins the suppression of the revolt of the Jews against Roman rule. 67 AD Joseph Ben Matthias, the Jewish leader, attempts to hold the fortress of Jotapata against a siege. 67 AD He surrenders to General Titus Flavius Vespasian after 47 days. Martyrdom of St. Nazarius. c. 68 AD He is tortured and then beheaded at Milan. Insurrection of C. Julius Vindex in Gaul is put down. 68 AD Flavius Josephus. Jewish historian. "The History of the Jewish People". 68 AD St. Linus becomes the Second Pope (Bishop of Rome). 67 AD Pope: 67-79 AD. Rebellion of Roman Legions and the Praetorian Guard against the Roman Emperor Nero. 68 AD The suicide of Nero (b.37-d.68) aged 30. 68 AD Nero stabs himself to death. Extinction of the House of Caesar. Galba, commander in Hispania Terraconensis becomes emperor of Rome. Reign of Roman Emperor Galba. 68-69 AD "Year of the Four Emperors". 68-69 AD Rhine legions in Germania acclaim their general, Aulus Vitellius as Roman emperor in opposition to Galba. 69 AD Marcus Salvius Otho (b.32-d.69), a former friend of Nero, has Emperor Galba killed. The Roman Senate declares Otho is Roman emperor. 69 AD Otho is briefly Roman Emperor. 69 AD Battle of Bedriacum (near Cremona). 69 AD Aulus Vitellius (commander of the legions on the Rhine) defeats Otho. Otho commits suicide by stabbing himself to death. Aulus Vitellius becomes emperor of Rome. Eastern governors proclaim Vespasianus, the general in Judaea, emperor of Rome. 69 AD Vespasian (Titus Flavius Vespasianus), general in Judaea, is recalled from Judaea. Vespasian leaves his son Titus in charge of the campaign in Judaea. Vespasianus defeats and kills Aulus Vitellius in a street battle. 69 AD Vespasian is formally made Emperor of Rome. 69 AD Vespasian is at Alexandria, Egypt. 69 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Vespasian (b.9-d.79). 69-79 AD (Titus Flavius Vespasianus) . Vespasian founded the Flavian Dynasty (Vespasian, Titus, Domitian). Vespasian strengthens the eastern boundaries of the Roman Empire. Revolt of the Batavians in Belgian Gaul against the Romans. 69-70 AD The Revolt is led by Claudius Civilis. Marcus Vettius Bolanus. Becomes the new governor of Roman Britain. 69 AD G. Suetonius Tranquillus (70-146). Born. 70 AD Roman author, scholar, historian, and biographer. St. Matthew the Apostle. “Gospel According to Saint Matthew”. Written. c. 70 AD Now that he has been proclaimed Emperor, Vespasian returns to Rome from Jerusalem, where he has John of Giscola, the Zealot leader of the Jews under siege. 70 AD Vespasian leaves Titus, his son, to continue the siege of Jerusalem. Conquest and destruction of the city of Jerusalem by Titus, the son of Roman Emperor Flavius Vespasian. 70 AD Titus, at the head of a Roman army, suppresses the Jewish revolt against Rome. Titus captures and destroys Jerusalem including Solomon's Temple at Jerusalem. 1,000,000 dead. Titus completes the Roman subjugation of Rloman Judaea. Disappearance of the Pharisees after the destruction of the Temple. The Jewish High priesthood and the Sanhedrin are abolished by the Romans. Followers of Jesus Christ are persecuted under Roman Law and worship in the catacombs of Rome. 70 AD Construction of the Forum at Rome under the reign of Roman Emperor Vespasian. 70 AD Vespasian. Roman Emperor. Orders the building of the Arch of Titus celebrating the conquest of Jerusalem by general Titus. 71 AD Philosophers are banished from Rome. 71 AD Martyrdom of Saint Thomas the Apostle. 72 AD The Apostle Thomas is killed by Hindu priests at Mylapore, India. Roman general Flavius Silva captures Masada, the last stronghold of the Jews in Palestine. 73 AD Completion of the conquest of Judea by the Romans. End of the Revolt of the Jews (66-73 AD). Vespasian. Roman Emperor. Begins the extension of the Roman Empire into what is now modern day Germany (until 74 AD). 73 AD St. Luke. "The Gospel According to Saint Luke". Written. c. 73 AD Martyrdom of Saint Mark the Evangelist. c. 74 AD Vespasian. Roman emperor. Orders the construction (75-79) of the Colosseum (originally called the Amphitheatrum Flavium - amphitheatre of Vespasia) at Rome. 75 AD Sixtus Julius Frontinius, ruler of Roman Britain, subdues the Silure tribe and other hostile tribes in Wales. 76 AD Frontinus establishes a Roman fortress at Isca Augusta (Chaerleon) for Legio (Legion) II Augusta. Gnaeus Julius Agricola is made governor of Roman Britannia (77-84 AD). Agricola replaces Sixtus Julius Frontinus. 77 AD Arrival of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93) in Britain. 77 AD Agricola is the imperial governor in Britain (77-84 AD). The purpose of his arrival is to complete the conquest of Britain that was begun by Julius Caesar in the first century BC. Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93) subdues the Ordovices tribe in Wales. He pursues the remnant of the tribe to Anglesey, the island of the Druids (Druidism). 77 AD In the winter of 77AD, Gnaeus Julius Agricola conquers Anglesey. 77 AD Agricola then disperses his army to their winter quarters. Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93). Continues the Roman conquest of Britain. 77-84 AD Agricola conquers the north part of England. Completed in 84 AD. Death of Vologases I. Pacorus II becomes king of the Parthian Empire. 78 AD Rules 78-115. Death of Vespasian. Vespasian is succeeded by his son,Titus. 79 AD Titus (age 38) is Roman Emperor. 79-81 AD Martyrdom of Saint Linus, the successor of Saint Peter. 79 AD Saint Linus is succeeded by Saint Anacletus (79-91). Eruption of Mount Vesuvius (accompanied by earthquake). Aug. 24, 79 AD Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Oplontis are destroyed and buried by the volcanic eruption. An estimated 16,000 persons are buried alive. Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93). Founds the Roman fortress Deva Victrix. 79 AD Will become the future Chester. Founds the Roman fortress Mamucian in the north west part of England. Will become the future Manchester. Emperor Titus completes construction of the Colosseum at Rome. 79 AD Josephus. Jewish historian. “The History of the Jewish War”. Written 75-79. Completed. 79 AD Famine and pestilence ravage the Roman world. In Rome alone, 10,000 die in one day. Thousands perish. 79-80 AD General Agricola builds a fleet for the planned conquest of Caledonia. Agricola will also finally prove that England is an island (85 AD). 80 AD Eifel Aquaduct is constructed. 80 AD “Book of the Acts of the Apostles”. c. 80 AD Anthrax sweeps through the Roman Empire. 80 AD Completion of the Baths of Titus. 80 AD St. John the Apostle. “Gospel According to St. John”. Written. c. 80 AD Another terrible fire in Rome. 80 AD Death of Roman Emperor Titus. 81 AD Reign of the Roman Emperor Domitian. 81-96 AD Domitian is the son of Vespasian, and younger brother (aged 29) of Titus. The reign of Domitian is characterized by continued persecutions of the followers of Jesus Christ (the Domitian Persecution). Completion of the construction of the “Arch of Titus” at Rome by Emperor Domitian. 81 AD Its purpose is to memorialize the conquest of Jerusalem by his brother Titus. Emperor Domitian. Begins the building of defense lines on the German frontier of the Roman Empire. 81 AD The Caledonians rise up in great numbers against the Romans. 82 AD They attack the camp of Legio (Legion) IX Hispana during the night. Agricola sends his cavalry. The Caledonians are forced to flee. Emperor Domitian. Campaigns across the Rhine River in Germania. 83 AD Domitian defeats the Chatti, a Germanic tribe. His victory allows the construction of fortifications (Limes) along the Rhine frontier. The Romans build the legionary fortress Inchtuthil in Scotland. 83 AD Gnaeus Julius Agricola defeats the various tribes of Scotland. 83 AD Annexation of Northern Britain by the Romans. 83 AD Roman power in Britain now extends as far north as Scotland. Battle of Mons Graupius. 84 AD Romans under Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93) defeat the Caledonians at Mt. Graupius (probably near modern day Aberdeen) in Rome's deepest northward penetration of Britain. Completion of the Roman conquest of Britain (Britannia). 84 AD Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93). Builds Roman fortresses between the Clyde and Forth rivers in Scotland. 84 AD Emperor Domitian recalls Julius Agricola in order to help repel barbarian invaders along the Rhine and Danube Valleys. 84 AD Domitian throws back a barbarian invasion along the Danube River. 85 AD Roman forces under Gnaeus Julius Agricola (b.40-d.93) successfully circumnavigate the British Isles. 85 AD Dacians under Decabulus engage in two wars against the Romans from 85 to 88/89. 85 AD Domitian repulses a Dacian invasion of Moesia. 85 AD Domitian Persecution of the Christians. 85-96 AD Severe persecution of the followers of Jesus Christ is ordered by Roman Emperor Domitian. Roman general Trajan begins a campaign to crush an uprising of Germanic tribes. 86 AD Romans divide Germania into two provinces. 86 AD Germania Inferior and Germania Superior. First Battle of Tapae. 86 AD The Romans are defeated by the Dacians. Julius Maternus. Roman explorer. Explores western Africa. c. 87 AD Decabulus becomes king of Dacia. 87 AD End of the First Dacian War. 88 AD Founding of Aquincum (old Budapest, Obuda) by the Romans. 88 AD Quintilian (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus). Roman. "Institutio Oratoria". Twelve books. Begun. 88 AD Writes a major study of Rhetoric. Domitian is defeated by the Marcomanni and Quadi of what is now called Bohemia. 89 AD Cologne becomes the capital of Germania Inferior. 90 AD St. John the Apostle is exiled to the isle of Patmos. 90 AD Martyrdom of St. Antipas. 90 AD Called by St. John, "my faithful witness", (Acts 2:13). Antipas is burned to death during the Domitian persecution of the Church. St. John the Apostle. “The Book of Revelation”. Written at Patmos. c. 90 AD Death of Vologeses I of Parthia. 90 AD Arsaces XXIV is in alliance with the Roman Empire. Nicomachus of Gerasa (60-120). From Gerasa in Roman Syria. "Arithmetike eisagoge" (also called “Introductio Arithmetica”). c.90 AD (“Introduction to Arithmetic”). This is the first work to treat the subject of arithmetic as a separate subject from geometry. Summarizes the existing knowledge of number theory up to that time. Martyrdom of St. Cletus (Anacletus, Greek), Pope, in Rome. 91 AD Clement, Bishop of Rome (pontificate). Clement succeeds Saint Cletus as Pope. 91-100 AD Josephus (originally Joseph ben Matthias). Jewish historian. "Jewish Antiquities". Completed. Written in the Aramaic language. 93 AD Romans found the city of Lindum (modern day Lincoln) in England. 94 AD Martyrdom of Saint Onesimus, a disciple of Saint Paul. 95 AD St. Onesimus is stoned to death in Rome. Appearance of a severe form of malaria in the areas surrounding the city of Rome. 95 AD The Roman conquest of West and South Germany is completed by finishing the “Limes” (fortified frontier road). 96 AD Marcus Ulpius Traianus (Trajan). Becomes governor of Upper Germany. 96 AD Saint Clement of Rome. "First Epistle to the Corinthians". c. 96 AD Assassination of the greatly despised emperor Domitian (b.51-d.96) by a palace conspiracy. End of the Flavian Dynasty of Rome. Sept. 18, 96 AD Reign of the Roman Emperor Nerva (Marcus Cocceius Nerva). 96-98 AD Nerva (age 60) begins what is called the dynasty of the Antonines. "The Age of the Antonines". These are the Roman emperors Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. 96-180 AD Saint Polycarp (c.69-c.155) Consecrated Bishop of Smyrna by St. John the Apostle. 96 AD Nerva adopts the Roman general Trajan as his successor. 97 AD Martyrdom of St. Timothy. 97 AD St. Timothy is stoned to death in Ephesus, when he opposes the pagan festival of Katagogian which is held in honor of Diana. Frontinus (Sextus Julius Frontinus), c.40-103. “De Aquaeductus”. This is a two volume work on Roman aqueducts summarizing the major advances in their construction since ancient times. 97 AD Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Traianus), the general commanding in lower Germania is made Emperor of Rome. 98 AD Trajan is the first Roman Emperor of non-Italian (provincial) stock. Reign of Roman Emperor Trajan. 98-117 AD Third or Trajan Persecution of Christians. 98-117 AD Trajan continues the executions throughout the Roman Empire of the followers of Jesus Christ. Martyrdom of St. Parmenas at Philippi, Macedonia. 98 AD Killed during the persecution of the Christians under Emperor Trajan. St. Parmenas was one of the converts from Judaism to Christianity. Founding of Colonia Nervia Glevensis. 98 AD This will later become the city of Glouchester. Cornelius Tacitus (56-120 AD). Roman historian. Appearance of his first historical works. 98 AD In 98, Tacitus writes the following two historical works: “De Vita Iulii Agricolae”. ("The Life of Agricola"). “De origini et situ Germanorum” (“Germania”). A history of the early Germanic tribes. Describes the culture of the Germanic tribes. Menelaus of Alexandria. "Sphaerica". c.98 AD Deals with spherical triangles and their application to astronomy. Establishes the subject of Spherical Trigonometry. Funan Empire is established in Cambodia. c.100 AD Champa kingdom is founded in South Vietnam and parts of Cambodia. Martyrdom of St. Clement (Pope). 100 AD St. Clement is condemned to death while he is a prisoner. He is thrown into the sea with an anchor tied around his neck. Saint Evaristus. Fifth Pope. c.100-105 AD Originally from Asia Minor. Birth of St. Justin (100-165). c.100 AD Will open the first Christian school in Rome. The Romans briefly lose control of Scotland to the barbarians. 100 AD Beginning of the period of the Corinthian Heresy. c.100 AD The Corinthian Heresy denies the full humanity of Jesus Christ. Germanic migrations and invasions slowly begin. 100 AD For the next 375 years, the Goths, the Vandals, and the Huns will raid the Roman Empire. At first they will be successfully defeated. Dacian Wars (Rome vs Dacia). 101-106 AD Roman Emperor Trajan fights in the Dacian wars. 101-107 AD Dacia is now part of modern day Romania. The Roman Empire reaches its greatest geographical extent after Emperor Trajan later subdues Dacia, Armenia, and Upper Mesopotamia. 101-107 AD Indo-Scythians invade North India. 102 AD Death of Saint John the Apostle at Ephesus. c. 104 AD Saint Alexander I. Sixth Pope. 105-115 AD Born in Rome. Tacitus (56-120 AD). Roman historian. “Historiae” (“The Histories”). 105 AD Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, and two in Galatia are destroyed by earthquakes. 105 AD Conquest of Dacia (Romania and Transylvania). Dacia is made a Roman province. 106 AD Trajan defeats Decebalus, King of Dacia, in battle. Petra, once the capital of the Nabataeans (a Semitic people), is taken over by the Romans. 106 AD Trajan forms the Roman province of Arabia Petraea (country south of Damascus to the head of the Red Sea). 106 AD It is inhabited by the Nabateans, a Semitic people. Trajan's Column, Rome. 106-113 AD Built to honor the conquest of Dacia by Roman Emperor Trajan. Includes a spiral frieze depicting the Dacian Wars in a continuous narrative. First mention of the term “Catholic Church” (literally means “Universal Church”) in an epistle written by St. Ignatius of Antioch. c. 107 AD Chosroes (Arsaces XXV). Parthian Empire. 107 AD Martyrdom of Saint Simeon Cleophas. 107 AD Simeon is the second Bishop of Jerusalem. During the persecution of the Christians under Roman Emperor Trajan, he is arrested, and after many tortures he is crucified. He is one hundred twenty years old at the time of his martyrdom. Martyrdom of St. Rufus and St. Zosimus. c. 107 AD They are both condemned to death for refusing to deny that Jesus Christ is God manifested in the flesh. They are thrown to wild beasts in the arena two days before the martyrdom of St. Ignatius of Antioch. Martyrdom of Saint Ignatius of Antioch. Dec. 19, 107 AD He is often surnamed Theophorus. He is sent in chains to Rome and thrown to the wild beasts. St. Ignatius was the first writer to use the expression "the Catholic Church". The Greek word Catolica means “general or universal”. An ambassador is sent from India to Rome. He is received by Roman Emperor Trajan. 107 AD Trajan. Roman Emperor. Constructs the Via Traiana at his own personal expense. The road connects Benevento to Brundisium (modern Brindisi). 107 AD A massive Roman aqueduct is built at Segovia, Spain. 110 AD St. Polycarp (ca.69-c.155). “Letter to the Philippians”. c.110 AD The Roman Empire now has over 48,000 miles of roads. 110 AD Trajan sends Pliny the Younger to be governor (legatus Augusti) of Bithynia (northwest Asia Minor). 111 AD Forum of Trajan, Rome. c.112 AD Designed by Apollodorus of Damascus. Trajan’s Forum is a masterpiece of axial planning. Proconsul Pliny the Younger reorganizes Bithynia. 112 AD Chosroes, King of Parthia, installs a puppet king in Armenia in defiance of Rome. 112 AD Martyrdom of St. Alexander (Pope Alexander I). 113 AD He is tortured, burned and then beheaded on the Via Nomentana, Rome. Renewal of the Parthian War. 113-116 AD Begun during the reign of Roman Emperor Trajan. Emperor Trajan annexes Armenia to the Roman Empire. 114 AD Destruction of the important city of Antioch, Syria by an earthquake. 115 AD Unknown number of thousands die. The Jews in Egypt, North Africa, Palestine, and Cyprus rebel against the rule of the Roman Empire. 115-116 AD The Jewish revolts are crushed with great severity by Trajan. Trajan captures Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthian Empire. 115 AD Roman Emperor Trajan makes Mesopotamia a Roman province. 115 AD Emperor Trajan. Makes the Tigris River the eastern boundary of the Roman Empire. 115 AD Saint Sixtus I. Seventh Pope. c. 116-125 AD Birthplace: Rome. Emperor Trajan makes Assyria a Roman Province. 116 AD Marches to the Persian Gulf to conquer Parthia. Rome is victorious in the war with the Parthians. 116 AD Trajan makes Armenia a Roman province. Death of Trajan in Cilicia. He is 63 years old. 117 AD Hadrian (Publius Aelius Hadrianus), legate of Syria. 117 AD Reign of the Roman Emperor Hadrian (Trajan’s cousin). 117-138 AD Hadrian abandons the lands east of the Euphrates River, that is, the provinces of Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. 117 AD Hadrian makes the Euphrates River the new eastern boundary of the Roman Empire. Chosroes (Arsaces XXV) is restored in Parthia. 117 AD Tacitus. Roman historian. “The Annals”. 117 AD Roman Emperor Hadrian. Fourth Persecution of the Christians under Hadrian. 117-138 AD The Pantheon (ordered by Hadrian). 118 AD Construction of the Pantheon at Rome begins (will be finished 124 AD). This was the largest domed structure in the world. It was built on the site of an older structure. Population of Rome exceeds one million people. 118 AD It is the largest city in the world. Martyrdom of St. Eustace (also known as Eustachius). c.118 AD Martyrdom of St. Dionysius (Denis) at Montmartre. Oct. 9, 119 AD Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy). Alexandrian astronomer and geographer. Performs experiments on the refraction of light. c.120 AD Tarfon. Jewish rabbi. Demands the burning of all of the books of what we now call the “New Testament”. 120 AD Vologeses II (Arsaces XXVI). Parthian Empire. 121 AD Suetonius. “The Lives of the Caesars”. 121 AD Hadrian. Roman Emperor. Visits Britain (Britannia). 122 AD Hadrian. Roman Emperor. Begins construction of a 75 mile long wall across Britain named after him (Hadrian’s Wall) from Tyne to Solway between northern England and Caledonia (Scotland). Completed c. 127 AD. 122 AD Built to protect Romans from attacks by tribes from the north (Scotland). The wall is about 10 feet thick and 15 feet high. Hadrian leads an expedition against the Berbers who have been raiding Roman cities in Roman Mauretania. 123 AD Completion of the Pantheon in Rome. 124 AD “The Epistle to Diognetus”. c.124 AD Written by an unknown author. Nagarjuna. Exponent of Buddhism in India. c. 125 AD Saint Telesphorus. Eighth Pope. c. 125-136 AD Birthplace: Greece. Spread of Gnosticism (the Gnostic Heresy). c. 125 AD North Africa is devastated by plague and famine. 125 AD “Shepherd of Hermas”. Written in Rome. c. 125 AD Earthquake. Nicomedia, Asia Minor. 126 AD Caesarea and Nicea are destroyed. Conversion of the philosopher Justin Martyr from paganism to Christianity. Justin had been born of a pagan Greek family in Samaria. c. 130 AD He had previously practiced in turn Stoicism, Aristotelianism, Pythagoreanism, and Platonism. Emperor Hadrian visits Egypt. New capital city is begun at Antinopolis. 130 AD Hadrian standardizes Roman Law throughout the Roman Empire. 131 AD The Jews in Jerusalem are indignant at the building of a temple to Jupter on the site of their Temple. 132 AD The Jews establish a new Jewish religious center at Jamnia. 132-135 AD Second Jewish Revolt. 132-135 AD Roman influence in Jerusalem provokes the revolt of the Jews. The Jewish Revolt is led by Simon Bar Kocheba and Rabbi Akiba Ben-Joseph (40-135). The Jews temporarily capture Jerusalem and set up an independent state of Israel. This is the Second Jewish Revolt (132-135 AD). Julius Severus, the Governor of Roman Britain, is sent to Palestine in order to crush the second revolt of the Jews. 133 AD After three years, Hadrian suppresses the second Jewish revolt. 135 AD Simon Bar Kocheba and Rabbi Akiba Ben-Joseph are both killed. Marks the end of the Jewish nation. Depopulation of Judaea. Hadrian converts Jerusalem to Aelia Capitolina. Judea is renamed Syria Palestina (Provincia Syria Palaestina). The Romans forbid any Jew to live in or to even enter into the city of Jerusalem. Jews are forced abroad. Final Diaspora (dispersion) of the Jews. Martyrdom of St. Telesphorus (Eighth Pope). During the reign of Roman Emperor Hadrian. 136 AD Emperor Hadrian adopts Antonius Pius as his successor. 138 AD St. Hyginus. Ninth Pope. 136-140 AD Birthplace: Greece. Death of Hadrian. 138 AD He is buried in the monumental circular tomb (the Mausoleum Hadriani, Castel Sant’Angelo). Reign of Roman Emperor Antonius Pius. 138-161 AD The Indo-Scythian invaders destroy the last traces of Hellenic (Greek) rule in Northern India. Greek rule had begun during the time of Alexander the Great (d.323 BC). c.138 AD The Goths migrate southwards. 140 AD Construction of a Roman theater at Verulamium (later will be called St. Albans), England. 140 AD Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus). c.100-c.170. Greek mathematician, astronomer, and geographer at Alexandria. “Megale Syntaxis tes astronomias”. Arabic: “Almagest”. Completed. c.140 AD Produces the “Almagest”, his great synthesis of current astronomical knowledge, which provided an early system of celestial mechanics. Antoninus Pius. Roman Emperor. Orders the building of the Antonine Wall against the Picts and the Caledonians. Built from Forth to Clyde (140-143). 140 AD Saint Pius I. Tenth Pope. c. 140-155 AD Birthplace: Venetia. During his pontificate, he opposes Valentinianism and Gnosticism. He will also excommunicate Marcian and condemn Marcionism (144). Roman general Quintus Lollius Urbinus crushes another revolt against Roman rule in northern Britannia. 143 AD Competes building the Antonine Wall from the Forth to Clyde rivers. Marcion of Sinope comes from Asia Minor to Rome. 144 AD Rise of the Marcionite Heresy (Marcionism). Marcion denies the Incarnation and the Resurrection. Marcion concludes that there must be two gods, a lower Demiurge who created the universe (i.e. the God of Judaism), and the supreme God made known for the first time by Jesus Christ. Marcion rejects the oneness of the indivisible Trinity. His dualism causes him to reject the divine origin of the Old Testament. Pope Pius I excommunicates Marcion (Marcionism). 144 AD Vologeses III (Arsaces XXVII). Parthian Empire. Renewal of war between Parthia and the Roman Empire. 149 AD Celsus. Platonic philosopher. “The Word of Truth”. 150 AD Anti-Christian treatise in which he rejects the oneness of God the Father and God the Son. Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus). Greek. “Geographia”. Writings on geography. Completed. 150 AD Mostly based on the travels of the Roman legions throughout the known world. Ptolemy (c.100-c.170). Greek. Discovers many geometrical results with applications to astronomy. c. 150 AD Goths migrate to the Black Sea. 150 AD Battle of Lyons. 151 AD Albinus revolts in Britannia. He proclaims himself to be Roman Emperor. He is killed in the Battle of Lyons. Uprising against Roman rule in Roman Egypt. 153 AD St. Justin Martyr. Publishes his “First Apology” for the Christians. c. 154 AD Saint Anicetus. Eleventh Pope. 155-166 AD A Syrian from Emessa. Anicetus actively opposes Marcionism (the Marcion Heresy), and Gnosticism (the Gnostic Heresy). Rome fights an inconclusive war with Vologesus of Parthia. 155 AD Martyrdom of St. Polycarp of Smyrna (c. 69-155). February 23, 155 AD Polycarp, a Bishop, refuses to sacrifice to the genius of the Emperor. He refuses to deny the Lord Jesus Christ. He is speared to death. St. Polycarp of Smyrna had been a disciple of St. John the Apostle. Appearance of the heresiarch Montanus in Ardaban (Mysia). 156 AD Marks the appearance of Montanism, a heresy originating in Phrygia. Named after the founder (heresiarch) Montanus. Earthquake destroys the cities of Pontius and Macedonia, Asia Minor. 157 AD Thousands die. Birth of Tertullian. c. 160 AD Stoicism is now a dominant philosophy in Rome. c. 160 AD Famine and starvation throughout England. 160 AD Number of thousands of deaths is unknown. Arrival of Valentinian at Rome. 160 AD Valentinian Ptolemaeus. Letter written to a catechumen named Flora. c.160 AD Valentinian Heresy. Galen of Pergamum. Greek physician. First to use the pulse rate as an indicator of health and sickness. c.160 AD Buddhism splits into two schools. c.160 AD Mahayana (the Great Vehicle) and Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle). Death of Roman Emperor Antonius Pius. 161 AD He is succeeded by his nephew Marcus Aurelius who shares power with Lucius Aurelius Verus. Reign of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antonius. 161-180 AD During his rule of the Roman Empire, Marcus Aurelius is forced to wage numerous wars through a series of disastrous years of floods, failing harvests, famine, barbarian raids, internal revolts, universal pestilence, disease, extreme cold weather and heat, and alternating heavy rains and drought. Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. Bronze. c. 161-180 AD Parthian Wars. 162-165 AD Lucius Aurelius Verus is successful in the war against the Parthians. Verus’ troops make Mesopotamia a Roman Province and gain control of Armenia. Outbreak of Great Plague in the Roman Empire. 164 AD Spreads from the Middle East to the West. Begins and lasts until the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 AD). Plague also devastates Asia Minor. Fifth or Aurelian Persecution of the Christians. 165-180 AD Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius launches one of the bitterest of all attacks against the followers of Jesus Christ. Avidius Cassius, Governor of Syria. Sacks Seleucia and Ctesiphon. 165 AD Martyrdom of St. Justin the Martyr (c.100-165). 165 AD Under Marcus Aurelius, he is scourged and beheaded for refusing to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to the pagan gods of Rome. Martyrdom of Saint Felicitas at Rome. c. 165 AD Saint Soterus (St. Soter). Twelfth Pope. 166-174 AD Birthplace: Campania, Italy. Opposes the Montanist Heresy (Montanism). Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Sends gifts to Huan Ti, the Emperor of China. 166 AD The Marcomanni, tribesmen from what is now Bohemia, with their allies, cross the Danube River and invade the Roman Empire. 166 AD They penetrate as far as Aquileia. Beginning of attempted invasions of the Empire by barbarian hoards. Battle of Aquileia. 166 AD In 166 three Germanic tribes swarm across the Alps in northeastern Italy. These are the Marcomanni tribesmen from Bohemia, the Quadi from Moravia, and the Iazyges of Hungary. They attack Aquileia at the head of the Adriatic Sea. Marcus Aurelius throws back the invaders. The following year (167) Marcus Aurelius raises the siege of Aquileia. First Marcomanni War. 167-175 AD (Wars of the Marcomanni and Quadi). Outbreak of fierce persecution of the Christians in Asia Minor. 167 AD Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Aurelius Verus, his co-emperor, conquer the Marcomanni, that are living to the north of the Danube River but occupying north western Italy for several years. 168 AD Plague. Roman Empire. 169 AD Second of a series of great plagues. Number of deaths is unknown. Death of Lucius Aurelius Verus (age 39). Co-emperor. 169 AD Marcus Aurelius is left to rule alone. The Marcomanni, Germanic barbarians, break the peace that had been concluded the previous year with the Roman Empire. The Marcomanni will soon be annihilated by a Roman army. Pausanias of Magnesia. Greek historian. “Periegesis”. Ten volumes. c. 170 AD A guide through Greece, including a history of Greek art. Ptolemy (c.100-c.170). Greek. Draws 26 maps of various countries of the known world. c.170 AD The Marcomanni, Germanic barbarians, are pushed back from Italy during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. 171 AD Marcus Aurelius. Stoic philosopher. During his campaigns against the Marcomanni, Marcus Aurelius, writes his work, the “Meditations,” which he wrote in Greek. 171 AD The “Meditations” is a classic of pagan philosophy written during the early Christian era. Marcus Aurelius. Stoic philosopher. “Meditations”. Written in Greek. c. 171 AD Marcus Aurelius. Makes peace with the Marcomanni tribes. He allows them to settle the plague ravaged Roman territories. 172 AD Marcus Aurelius defeats the Quadi tribe. 173 AD Saint Eleutherius (or Eleuterius, Greek). Thirteenth Pope. 174-189 AD Avidius Cassius, governor of Syria, revolts. 175 AD His army is crushed. Marcus Aurelius. Returns back to the city of Rome after his successful military campaign north of the Alps. 176 AD Catechetical School of Alexandria is founded. c. 176 AD First headmaster is Pantaenus, an Athenian Stoic converted to Christianity. Later his student Clement will succeed him (from 190-203 AD). The school teaches subjects such as Theology, Philosophy, the Old Testament, the New Testament, Logic, Mathematics, Exegesis, Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Persecution of Christians under Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius begins once again throughout the Roman Empire. 177 AD The fish becomes a secret symbol of Christianity. c. 177 AD Christianity is first introduced to Celtic leaders at Lyons. 177 AD The Martyrs of Lyons. 177 AD St. Pothinus (also Photinus), the bishop of Lyons, and forty seven other Christians are stoned, tortured to incredible extremes, and then put to death during the persecution of Marcus Aurelius. Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius makes his son Commodus co-emperor o f the Roman Empire. 177 AD Martyrdom of Saint Cecilia. 177 AD Cecilia is given the choice of sacrificing to heathen gods or of being killed. She refuses to reject the indivisible Trinity, and is killed. Second Marcomanni War. 178-180 AD The Marcomanni and their allies renew their war with Roman Empire. St. Irenaeus (c.125-c. 203). Returns to Lyons and becomes Bishop of Lyons. Fiercely opposes the Gnostic Heresy which he will refute in a five book treatise, “Adversus Omnes Haereses” (c.189). Death of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (age 58) at Vindobona (modern day Vienna). 180 AD Nearly a century of war and disorder begins in the Roman Empire. 180 AD Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, becomes sole Roman Emperor. 180 AD Commodus rules 180-192 AD. Canon of the sacred writings of Christianity. c. 180 AD Inclusion of the Old Testament and the New Testament. Revived Carthage in North Africa (previously destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC) begins to flourish as a major Roman city. c. 180 AD Column of Marcus Aurelius. c. 180-196 AD Building of a Triumphal Column at Rome depicting scenes from the Marcomanni War. Commodus. Roman emperor. Continuation of murder of Christians throughout the Roman Empire. 180 AD First Christians are martyred at Scillium (north Africa). 180 AD The Acts of the Scillitan Saints. 180 AD These are the earliest surviving writings concerning Christian martyrs in Roman Africa. These writings are dated July 17, 180 AD. Theophilus and Tatian. c. 180 AD Arrival of Clement in Alexandria. c. 180 AD The Antonine Wall in Roman Britain is breached. 180 AD The Romans, defeated in Scotland, fall back on Hadrian’s Wall. After the death of Marcus Aurelius (180), the Romans under Commodus give up the war against the Marcomanni in the north. 181 AD Birth of Origen (c.183-254) at Alexandria. c. 183 AD Assassination attempt on Roman Emperor Commodus. c. 183 AD Martyrdom of Saint Apollonius the Apologist. c. 185 AD A Roman senator, after converting from paganism to Christianity, he refuses to renounce the doctrine that Jesus Christ is God manifested in the flesh. He is sentenced to death and then beheaded. St. Demetrius (126-231). Made Bishop of Alexandria, Egypt. 188 AD St. Irenaeus of Lyons. “Adversus Omnes Haereses”. c. 189 AD Plague. Roman Empire. 189 AD This is the third of a series of terrible plagues. Kills as many as 200 persons a day in Rome. Saint Victor I. 14th Pope. First Latin Pope. 189-199 AD Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clement). Head of the Catechetical School of Alexandria. 190 AD Clement succeeded upon the death of Pantaenus. Clement will be head from 190 until 203. Theodotus (from Constantinople), the originator of the heresy of “dynamic monarchianism”, brings his false doctrines to Rome. Theodotus teaches that until His Baptism, Jesus Christ lived the life of a regular person, with the difference that He was supremely virtuous. The Holy Spirit, then descended upon Him, and from that moment, He worked miracles, without however becoming divine. Theodotus will be excommunicated by Pope St. Victor I. Galen. Greek physician. Extracts plant juices for medicinal purposes. c. 190 AD Vologeses IV (Arsaces XXVIII). Parthian Empire. 191 AD Martyrdom of St. Pellegrino (Peregrine) the Martyr under the rule of Roman Emperor Commodus. August 25, 192 AD Roman Emperor Commodus finally goes insane. 192 AD Murder of Commodus. 192 AD Commodus' favorite mistress Marcia and his chamberlain Eclectus discover their names on an execution list. They hire a wrestler to strangle Commodus to death. End of the Antonine line of Roman Emperors. Publius Pertinax is chosen against his will by the Roman Senate to succeed Commodus as Roman Emperor. 193 AD Murder of Roman Emperor Pertinax by the Praetorian Guard who choose Didius Julian instead. 193 AD Provincial Roman armies in Pannonia, Britain, and Syria back rival claimants to imperial power. Septimius Severus, governor of Pannonia (now mostly Hungary) enters Rome in full battle array and ends the reign of Didius Julian after two months. 193 AD Septimius Severus has Didius Julianus put to death. Septimus Severus is Roman Emperor. 193-211 AD Caesar Severus is a follower of Serapis, an Egyptian god of the dead. Continued persecution of the Christians under Septimus Severus. Conversion of Quintus Tertullian to Christianity. 193 AD Civil Wars of the Roman Empire. 194-197 AD Septimius Severus defeats his rival, Pescennius Niger, at Issus (now in Asia Minor), killing him. 194 AD Septimus Severus sacks Byzantium. 196 AD Barbarians overrun northern Britain, and damage Hadrian’s Wall. 196 AD Tertullian. “Apology”. c.197 AD Septimus Albinus, governor of Britain, and claimant to the imperial throne, proclaims himself Emperor in Britain. 197 AD Septimus Severus. Defeats and kills his other rival Septimus Albinus, the governor of Britain, at the Battle of Lyon (Lugdunum). 197 AD Septimus Severus. Crushes a Parthian rebellion against Roman rule. 198 AD Septimus Severus reaches Ctesiphon, conquers and reorganizes the Roman province of Mesopotamia. The primacy of the Bishop of Rome in the Christian Church is re-affirmed under Pope Victor I (189-199 AD). 199 AD Saint Zephyrinus. 15th Pope. 199-217 AD Birthplace: Rome. Defends the apostolic doctrine of the Oneness of God and the Indivisible Trinity of God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. Sixth persecution of Christians under Roman Emperor Septimus Severus. His objective is to establish one common religion throughout the Roman Empire. c.199-211 AD Clement and Origen, Christian theologians, are teaching in Alexandria, Egypt. c.200-230 AD Formation of the Neo-Hebrew language. c. 200 AD First appearance of the Franks in Europe. c. 200 AD The name of Franks (or free men) is given to a military confederacy of the lower Rhine and the Weser. The Goths enter into Dacia, and after crossing the Danube River, attack the Roman provinces. 200 AD Beginning of the invasion of Afghanistan by the Huns. 200-240 AD Period of Neo-Platonism, the last of the Greek philosophies. c. 200 AD Jingu, the Japanese Empress, sends a fleet to invade Korea. 200 AD At the sight of the Japanese ships, the Korean people surrender immediately and offer tribute. Oldest Mayan temples in Central America. c. 200 AD Roman Emperor Septimus Severus issues an edict against conversion from any religion to Christianity. Persecutions continue. 202 AD Martyrdom of St. Leonides of Alexandria. He is beheaded. 202 AD Martyrdom of St. Potamiana. 202 AD She is lowered feet first into a cauldron of boiling pitch. Martyrdom of St. Perpetua and St. Felicitas (at Carthage). March 7, 203 AD They are sworded to death for refusing to deny that Jesus Christ is God. They have four companions with them who are also martyred. They are Saturus, Secundulus, Saturninus, and Revocatus. Martyrdom of St. Irenaeus (125-203). c. 203 AD Martyred at Lyons, during the persecution of the Christians under the rule of Roman Emperor Septimus Severus. Origen. Takes charge of the Catechetical School at Alexandria, Egypt. 203 AD Arch of Septimus Severus is raised in Rome. 203 AD British revolt against Roman rule in Britannia. 205 AD Plotinus (205-270 AD) is born. Greek speaking Egyptian. 205 AD Will write “The Enneads”. Septimus Severus. Defeats Vologeses IV (Arsaces XXVIII) of the Parthian Empire. 207 AD Septimus Severus sacks the chief cities of the Parthian Empire. Tertullian. Undergoes a radical transformation and joins the Montanists. c. 207 AD Septemus Severus. Goes to Britannia to defeat the British revolt. 208 AD Roman Emperor Septimus Severus campaigns in Britannia against the revolt of the Caledonians (Scots). 208-211 AD Septimus Severus. Repairs Hadrian’s Wall that had been built across Britannia. 208 AD The birth of Cyprian. c.210 AD Suppression of the British revolt against the Romans. 211 AD Emperor Septimus Severus dies at Eboracum (modern day York). 211 AD Septimus Severus is succeeded by his sons Augustus (known as Caracalla) and Geta. Caracalla (Antoninus Bassianus), the eldest son of Septimus Severus, murders Geta, his brother and co-ruler, and most of the latter’s followers. Caracalla is Roman Emperor. 212 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Caracalla. 212-217 AD Caracalla builds the immense Baths of Caracalla at Rome. 212-216 AD Edict of Caracalla. “Civis Romanus Sum”. 212 AD Caracalla gives Roman citizenship to every freeborn subject in the Roman Empire (all provincials). Caracalla fends off the Alemanni along the Rhine River in Southern Germany and the Goths farther east. 214 AD Death of St. Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clement). c.215 AD St. Clement is one of the Greek Fathers of the Church. Birth of Mani (215-275), founder of the Manichaeans (Manichaenism), at Mardinu, Babylonia. 215 AD Caracalla annexes Armenia. 216 AD Artabanus V (Arsaces XXX), is the last Arsacidaen king of the Parthian Empire. 216-226 AD After struggles with the Parthians along the Euphrates River, Roman Emperor Caracalla is murdered. 217 AD Saint Callistus I (also written St. Callixtus I). 16th Pope. 217-222 AD Birthplace: Rome. Reign of Roman Emperor Mauretanian Macrinus (age 53). 217-218 AD M. Opilius Macrinus is beheaded in a mutiny near Antioch. 218 AD Proclamation of Emperor Heliogabalus (Elagabalus) of Emesa, Caracalla’s nephew, by the army. 218 AD Elagabalus is a priest of the Syrian Sun god. Elagabalus (Heliogabalus), M. Aurelius Antoninus, first cousin of Caracalla, is Roman Emperor. His mother, Julia Soaemias Bassiana, actually rules. 218-222 AD Introduction of the ancient Syrian cult of Baal at Rome. 218 AD The Goths invade the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. c. 220 AD The Goths threaten the Balkans and Asia Minor. Until 238 AD. End of the Han Dynasty in China. 220 AD Period of the Three Kingdoms in China (until 265 AD). 220 AD China is divided into three competing dynasties. The three kingdoms are the Shu, the Wu, and the Wei. China will be invaded for the next four hundred years. Emperor Elagabalus and his mother Julia Soaemias Bassiana are put to death for their atrocities by the Roman Praetorian guards. 222 AD He is succeeded by his adopted son, the 14 year old Bassianus, who takes the name Alexander Severus. Emperor Alexander Severus rules the Roman Empire. 222-235 AD Great spread of oriental paganism, from the east, especially the ancient Syrian cult of Baal. Saint Urban I. 17th Pope. 222-230 AD Birthplace: Rome. Battle of Hormizdegan (also called Hormuz). 226 AD The Parthians are crushed. Artabanus V, the last Arsacid king of Parthia is killed. End of the Parthian Empire (Arsacids). 226 AD The Persian rebel Ardashir I (Artaxerxes) overthrows the Parthian Empire. Ardashir I founds the New Persian Empire under Sassanid (Sassanian) Dynasty (Sassanid Empire). Makes Zoroastrianism the official religion of the new empire. The Sassanian Empire will rule Persia until it is destroyed by the moslems in 641. New Persian Empire of the Sassanids (the Sassanian Empire). 226-641 AD Reign of Artaxerxes (Ardashir I) of the New Persian Sassanian (Sassanid) Empire. 226-240 AD Sassanian-Roman War. 229-232 AD Ardashir I of the Sassanian Empire wars with the Roman Empire and seizes Armenia after the death of its king Chosroes. Death of St. Urban (Pope Urban I) at Rome. May 23, 230 AD Saint Pontianus (St. Pontian). 18th Pope. 230-235 AD Birthplace: Rome. Christian catacomb paintings are at their height. c. 230 AD Emperor Sujin, the first known ruler of Japan. 230 AD St. Pontian (d. 236). Pope. Holds a synod at Rome. 230-235 AD Condemnation of Origenism at Alexandria, Egypt. 231-232 AD Sassanian-Roman War establishes the Sassanian Empire as the major power in the east. 232 AD The Romans expel Ardashir I of the Sassanian Empire from Mesopotamia and Cappadocia in Asia Minor. 232 AD St. Pontian (Pope). Resigns his office as Pope while he is a prisoner at Sardinia. 235 AD St. Antherus (Anterus). 19th Pope. 235-236 AD Birthplace: Greece. Roman Emperor Alexander Severus. Purchases peace from the Alamanni tribes that are on the Rhine River boundary of the Roman Empire. 235 AD Murder of Emperor Alexander Severus by his own troops on the Rhine River in an army meeting. 235 AD Begins a period of military chaos. Rome’s Rhine legions elect Maximinus (Thrax) as the next Roman Emperor. 235 AD Maximinus is a Thracian. Reign of Roman Emperor Caius Julius Verus Maximinus (the Thracian). 235-238 AD He is 62 years old. Seventh persecution of the followers of Jesus Christ under Roman Emperor Maximin Thrax. 235-238 AD Martyrdom of St. Hippolytus. 235 AD Hippolytus and twenty other Christians of his household are beaten to death with leaden whips. Martyrdom of St. Pontian (Pope 230-235). 236 AD He is beaten to death in the mines at Sardinia. Martyrdom of St. Antherus (19th Pope). January 3, 236 AD St. Fabian. 20th Pope. 236-250 AD Birthplace: Rome. Succeeds St. Antherus. A Roman, he is elected Pope on January 10, 236. Martyrdom of St. Barbara of Nicomedia (Bythnia, Asia Minor). She refuses to deny the oneness of the indivisible Trinity. December 4, 237 AD St. Gregory Thaumaturgus (c. 213-268). He is elected to be the Bishop of Neocaesarea by the seventeen Christians that are in the city. c. 238 AD The Goths begin their invasion of the Eastern part of the Roman Empire. 238 AD The Roman provinces in north Africa reject Maximinus the Thracian, and elect M. Antonius Gordianus, their proconsul. 238 AD Gordianus is 80 years old and a descendant of Trajan. The supporters of Maximinus the Thracian besiege Gordianus at Carthage for one month. 238 AD Assassination of Emperor Maximinus the Thracian in his tent by his own troops. June 238 AD Maximinius is succeeded by M. Antonius Gordianus I. 238 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Antonius Gordianus I. 238 AD While at Carthage, and in his eightieth year, he strangles himself. Reign of Roman Emperor Gordianus II (son of Gordianus I). 238 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Pupienus Maximus. 238 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Balbinus (co-regent). 238 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Gordianus III. 238-244 AD Shapur I. Rules the Sassanian Empire (the new Persian Empire). 240-271 AD Council of Carthage. 240-250 AD The Franks invade Gaul. 240 AD Shapur I of the Neo-Persian Empire starts a war with the Roman Empire by invading Roman Mesopotamia. 241 AD First war between the Roman Empire and the Sassanian Empire (the new Persian Empire). 241-244 AD Manes (Persian). Founder of Manichaenism. Begins teaching Manichaenism in Persia. c. 242 AD Palace of Shapur (Sassanian). Ctesiphon. 242 AD Furius Timesitheus. Roman prefect. Drives out Persian forces from Antioch. 243 AD Gordianus III. Roman Emperor. Drives the Persian army across the Euphrates River. 244 AD The Romans defeat the Persians in Mesopotamia in the Battle of Resaena. Praetorian prefect, Marcus Philippus the Arabian, kills Emperor Gordian III and becomes Emperor of Rome. 244 AD Reign of the Roman Emperor Marcus Philippus of Arabia. 244-249 AD Anti-Christian emperor. Marcus Philippus (Arabian) makes peace with the Sassanian (Persian) Empire. 244 AD Conversion of Saint Cyprian (c. 200-258). c. 246 AD Cyprian’s full name is Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus. A pagan rhetorician, teacher, and lawyer, he is converted to Christianity by Caecilius, a Catholic priest. The Goths cross the Danube River in a great raid. 247 AD St. Dionysius the Great of Alexandria (d. 265). Elected Bishop of Alexandria (247-264). 247 AD Saint Cyprian (c.200-258). Elected Bishop of Carthage (248-258). 248 AD Rome celebrates the 1,000th anniversary of its founding. 248 AD Rome was founded in 753 BC. Martyrdom of Saint Cyriaca (also known as Dominica). 249 AD She refuses to deny the Divinity of Jesus Christ and is scourged to death. Martyrdom of St. Apollonia. 249 AD Martyred at Alexandria during the reign of Emperor Marcus Philippus. When Apollonia does not renounce Jesus Christ, she is tortured. Her teeth are knocked out, and she is burned to death in a fire. The following three others are martyred with her. St. Metras is first tortured and then stoned to death. St. Quinta is dragged through the streets and then is scourged to death. St. Serapion is thrown from the roof of his house by the rioting mob. Decius, Roman commander. Puts down an army revolt in Pannonia. 249 AD Roman troops proclaim Decius emperor. Marcus Phillipus advances to Verona to oppose Decius. 249 AD Marcus Philippus, the Arabian, is killed in battle by troops of the Roman general Decius. Decius becomes Roman Emperor. 249 AD Reign of Roman Emperor C. Messius Quintus Traianus Decius. He is of Illyrian origin. 249-251 AD Decian Persecution (249-251). January 20, 250 AD Eighth persecution of the Christians. Roman Emperor Decius orders the systematic general and indiscriminate persecution of all the followers of Jesus Christ (Christians). Roman Emperor Decius. Orders all provincial officials to require all persons in their domains to sacrifice to the Roman gods and to the genius of Caesar. 250 AD Martyrdom of Saint Mercurius. c. 250 AD During Emperor Decius’ persecution of the followers of Jesus Christ. He is first tortured and then beheaded for refusing Emperor Decius’ order to participate in the sacrifices to the pagan gods of the Roman Empire. Mercurius had just led a Roman army in a great victory against the barbarians that were attacking Rome. Birth of Saint Anthony of Egypt (250-356) at Koman, near Memphis, Egypt, near the Red Sea. 250 AD St. Fabian (Pope). St. Fabian sends out seven bishops from Rome into pagan Gaul. 250 AD St. Fabian sends St. Gatien to Tours, St. Trophimus to Arles, St. Paul to Narbonne, St. Saturnin to Toulouse, St. Denis (d. 258) to Paris, St. Austromoine to Clermont, and St. Martial to Limoges. Martyrdom of St. Fabian (Pope 237-250) in the early stages of the Decian persecution of the Christians. January 20, 250 AD Worship of the gods of Rome is made compulsory. 250 AD Bubonic Plague. Roman Empire. 250-265 AD In Rome alone, 5000 victims die each day. Many cities are completely depopulated. Diophantus of Alexandria. Greek mathematician. “Arithmetica”. Writes an early treatise on algebra. c.250AD Includes the first systematic use of algebraic symbols. Many problems involve solutions in integers only (Diophantine Equations). Martyrdom of St. Miniato (Armenian: Minias). October 25, 250 AD Brought before Emperor Decius (rules 249-251) at Florence, Italy. He refuses to reject Christ, is tortured, and then beheaded. Defeat of the Goths in Thrace. 251 AD Roman Emperor Decius and his son are defeated and killed fighting the Goths at Silistria in the swamps of the Dobrudja (Dacia). 251 AD General Gallus, Decius’ successor, makes peace with the Goths. 251 AD Reign of Emperor Gallus and coemperor Hostilianus, son of Decius. 251 AD Gallus kills his coemperor, son of Decius, and becomes sole Emperor of the Roman Empire. Gallus rules 251-253. Saint Cornelius. 21st Pope. 251-253 AD Birthplace: Rome. The Goths, under their king Ostrogotha, for the first time force their way into the Roman Empire by crossing the Danube River. 251 AD Gothic invasion of the Roman Empire. 251-269 AD St. Cyprian (c. 200-258). Bishop of Carthage. Convenes a council at Carthage. 251 AD It is at this council that Cyprian read his famous “De Unitate Ecclesiae”. Martyrdom of Saint Agatha at Catania, Sicily. February 5, 251 AD She is subjected to all forms of indignities and excruciating tortures. She is racked, they cut off her breasts, and then roll her over red hot coals until she is dead. Synod of Western Bishops in Rome. October 251 AD Condemns the teachings of Novatian (the Novatian Heresy) , and excommunicates him and all of his followers. Novatian teaches that after Baptism there can be no forgiveness of sins. Carthage is stricken by a terrible plague. 252-254 AD The Christians are blamed for the plague. Devastation of Pontus by the barbarian Goths. 252-254 AD The Franks, the Goths, and the Alemanni break through the borders of the Roman Empire. c. 252 AD Roman Emperor Trebonianus Gallus. Starts up the persecution of the Christians again. 253 AD Martyrdom of St. Cornelius (Pope) during the persecutions ordered by the pagan Roman Emperor Trebonianus Gallus. 253 AD Roman soldiers, campaigning along the Danube River, elect Marcus Aemilianus, the governor of Pannonia, as their Emperor. 253 AD Aemilianus marches on Rome to meet his opponent Trebonianus Gallus. Aemilianus defeats Trebonianus Gallus at Interamna Nahors (Umbria). Gallus flees to the north, but is killed by his own troops. 253 AD Saint Lucius I. 22nd Pope. 253-254 AD Birthplace: Rome. Reaffirms the condemnation of the Novatian Heresy (Novatianism) which refused the Sacraments to penitent “lapsi”. Marcus Aemilianus rules the Roman Empire. 253 AD Martyrdom of St. Messalina. January 19, 254 AD She refuses to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to the pagan gods. She is clubbed to death. Aemilianus is put to death after a reign of four months. 254 AD Publius Valerianus (Valerian), aged 60, commander in Germania, is elected Emperor by the Roman Senate and soldiers. 254 AD His son, Gallienus, is co-Emperor. Reign of Roman Emperor Valerian. 254-258 AD Valerian seeks to execute all Bishops, Priests, and Deacons throughout the Roman Empire. Saint Stephen I. 23rd Pope. 254-257 AD Birthplace: Rome. Martyrdom of St. Christophorus. July 25, 254 AD The plague which appeared two years before, now spreads through Egypt and across Europe. 255 AD St. Cyprian (c.200-258). Bishop of Carthage. “De Mortalitate”. 255 AD Valerian fails to stop the Franks, the Goths, and the Alemanni that are advancing into the Roman Empire. c. 256 AD The Visigoths and Ostrogoths invade the Black Sea area. 257 AD Death of Saint Stephen I (Pope). 257 AD Ninth or Valerian Persecution of Christians (257-258). Begins. 257 AD Roman Emperor Valerian orders all Christian worship to cease throughout the Roman Empire. Invasion of Roman Spain by the Franks. 257 AD Division of the Goths into Visigoths and Ostrogoths. 257 AD Saint Sixtus II. 24th Pope. 257-258 AD Birthplace: Greece. Edict of Persecution (Emperor Valerian). 258 AD Emperor Valerian, in an Imperial decree, orders that all Christian clergy and men of ranks Bishop, priests, and deacons should be degraded and lose their property. If, having been deprived of their possessions, they should still remain Christian, then they must be put to death. Continued murder of the followers of Jesus Christ. Invasion of Upper Italy by the Alemanni and the Suevi. 258 AD Second Persian War with Rome. 258-260 AD Shapur I of Persia. Advances as far as Cappadocia in Asia Minor. 258 AD Milan. 258 AD Invading Alemanni and Suevi are defeated at Milan. Roman rule is preserved in Northern Italy. Martyrdom of Saint Sixtus II. 24th Pope. August 6, 258 AD Saint Sixtus II is seized, condemned to death, and executed during Emperor Valerian’s persecution. Along with Sixtus II, six deacons of the Church are tortured and executed. Their names are Agapitus, Felicissimus, Januarius, Magnus, Stephen, and Vincent. Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence (Laurentius) in Rome. August 10, 258 AD During Emperor Valerian’s persecution of the Christians, St. Laurence is bound to a red-hot gridiron and roasted to death over a slow fire. Martyrdom of Saint Cyprian (c. 200-258), Bishop of Carthage. Cyprian persists in his refusal to sacrifice to the pagan gods of Rome. His crime is the refusal to worship Caesar, which is a sacrilege. He is beheaded. September 14, 258 AD Martyrdom of St. Denis (Greek: Dionysius). October 9, 258 AD He is beheaded near Paris. Shapur I, second Sassanid ruler (Persian ruler). Invades Mesopotamia. 258 AD Shapur I. Sassanian Empire. Takes Antioch. 258 AD Gallienus (son of Valerian and co-Emperor). Becomes sole Roman Emperor. 258 AD Reign of Gallienus: 258-268. Saint Dionysius. 25th Pope. 259-268 AD Defends (260) the doctrine of the three persons of the indivisible Trinity. Condemns the Sabellian Heresy (Sabellianism). Shapur I of the Neo-Persian Empire ravages Syria. 259 AD Martyrdom of Saint Fructuosus. 259 AD When Fructuosus refuses to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to the Roman gods, he is first tortured and then burned to death. Battle of Edessa. 260 AD (Part of the Persian Wars of the Roman Empire). The army of Valerian is destroyed at Edessa by Shapur I of Persia. Roman Emperor Valerian is captured in battle by Shapur I of Persia. It is believed that Valerian was flayed alive while he was in captivity. The Roman Empire comes under attack from the barbarian Vandals, Goths, Alemanni, Palmyrans, Berbers, and Franks in addition to the plague. 260 AD Seizure of Roman territory in the Near and Middle East by the Sassanian Empire (Persia). 260 AD Paul of Samosata, false bishop of Antioch in Syria, and heretic of the Church, denies the divinity of Jesus Christ. 260 AD He rejects the indivisible Trinity. He teaches that Christ was a regular person until the Holy Ghost descended upon him at his baptism (Adoptionism). St. Lucian. Founds the exegetical School of Antioch. c. 260 AD Rival Gothic Empire is established. 260 AD Death of Saint Felix of Nola. January 14, 260 AD St. Paul of Thebes becomes a hermit. c. 260 AD Roman Emperor Gallienus. Issues edict of toleration for Christians. 261 AD Edict will be rejected by the next emperor (268). Goths are in Macedonia and Asia Minor. 262 AD Sack of Ephesus. 262 AD Odenathus of Palmyra. Defeats the Sassanians (Sassanian Empire). 263 AD Seizes Syria and Mesopotamia for the Roman Empire. Drives the Persians back across the Euphrates River. Invasion of Gaul by the Franks. 263 AD Synod of Antioch. 264-265 AD Against Paul of Samosata, rejects the Sabellian Heresy, and rejects Tritheism (the Tritheistic Heresy). The Tritheistic Heresy maintains that the Trinity consists of three gods. Western (Ch’in) take over Wei state in China. 265 AD China begins to be reunited under the Western Tsin (Ch’in) Dynasty. Will continue until the White Huns begin to invade in 317. Condemnation of Sabellianism (the Sabellian Heresy). 266 AD Assasination of Odenaethus of Palmyra. 267 AD Septima Zenobia. Queen of Palmyra. Declares independence of Palmyra from Rome. 267 AD The Goths sweep through Asia Minor. 267 AD The Goths sack Athens, Corinth, and Sparta. 268 AD Synod of Antioch. 268 AD Formal condemnation of the heresy of Paul of Samosata. This is a continuation of the Synod of Antioch of 264-265. Roman Emperor Gallienus. Killed by his own troops at Mediolanum (Milan, Italy). 268 AD Claudius II. Raised to the throne of Roman Emperor (to 270) by his soldiers. 268 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Flavius Claudius II (b. 214-d.270). 268-270 AD He is a fierce enemy of Christianity. Defeat of the Alemanni by Emperor Claudius II. 268 AD Death of Saint Gregory Thaumaturgus (c.213-268). 268 AD He is also referred to as the Apostle of Pontus. Septima Zenobia. Queen of Palmyra. Conquers Syria, Mesopotamia, and parts of Egypt. 268-269 AD Martyrdom of Saint Valentine. Beheaded in Rome under Emperor Claudius Gothicus. Feb. 14, 269 AD Septima Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, captures Roman Egypt. 269 AD The great library of Alexandria is partly burned. Palmyra now has control of Rome’s grain supply. Battle of Naissus (Nish, Nis). 269 AD The Goths are crushed by Emperor Claudius Gothicus in the Battle of Naissus (Nis, Yugoslavia). During the Gothic invasion of 251-269 AD, the total number of war dead is over 120,000. Saint Felix I. 26th Pope. 269-274 AD Birthplace: Rome. Claudius II, Roman Emperor, dies of the plague. Jan. 270 AD Quintillius (Claudius’ brother) becomes Roman Emperor. 270 AD Quintillius is deserted by his troops and commits suicide. He is succeeded by Aurelianus (Aurelian). 270 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Aurelianus (b. 212-d.275). 270-275 AD Aurelian Persecution. Ninth persecution of Christians. 270-275 AD The Marcomanni advance from Bohemia across the Danube River. 270 AD Martyrdom of St. Prisca (also known as Priscilla). 270 AD After suffering great and dreadful tortures, she is killed with a sword. The Goths, in their progress southward, are joined by countless swarms of barbarians. They are able to overwhelm the countries they invade. c. 270 AD St. Helena (c.250-c.330). Meets Roman General Constantius Chlorus. c.270 AD They are married but will later divorce for political reasons. Manes (216-276) spreads his false doctrines in Persia. 270 AD Manes blends elements drawn from Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Gnosticism. He attempts to provide a universal religion for both the West and the East. Battle of Placentia (Piacenza). 271 AD In a fierce encounter, the Alemanni and their allies (the Jutungi, the Vandals, and others) are driven back by the Romans. Battle of Pavia. 271 AD Defeat of the Alemanni and their allies at Pavia (Ticinum) by Aurelian. Aurelian drives the Alemanni out of Italy. Aurelian Wall. 271-286 AD Great Wall around Rome is rebuilt by Roman Emperor Aurelian. These massive brick faced defenses will be used until 1870. The Romans drive the Goths from Illyricum and Thrace. 272 AD Romans defeat the Goths on the Danube River. St. Antony (Anthony) the Great (b.250-d.356). Retires into the desert in a tomb, in a cemetery near Koman, Egypt. He seeks to pursue the ascetic life. c. 272 AD Famine. England. 272 AD The famine is so terrible that people gnaw on the bark of trees. Subjugation and destruction of the rebel Queen Zenobia’s state of Palmyra (in modern Syria) by Aurelian. Zenobia is carried captive to Rome. 272 AD End of the brief rise of Palmyra. Aurelian recaptures Roman Egypt from the defeated Queen Zenobia of Palmyra. 273 AD Aurelianus sacks Palmyra in response to a revolt. 273 AD Aurelian concludes a peace with the Goths by sacrificing the province of Dacia to them and retreating to Danubian borders. 274 AD Emperor Aurelian (270-275). Offers the Christians to include Jesus Christ in the pantheon of Roman gods along with Mithra as a manifestation of the Unconquered Sun. 274 AD The Christians reject his offer. Aurelian now determines to root out Christianity from the Roman Empire. Recapture of Roman Gaul by Aurelian in a struggle at Châlons. c.274 AD Subjugation of the separate rival empire of Gaul by Aurelian. Aurelian. Roman Emperor. Assumption of the title “Dominus et Deum” (“Lord and God”). 274 AD Aurelian introduces the sun cult of Emesa (Sol invictus) which ties to the cult of the Roman Emperor. The Sun cult is made a state wide religion. Saint Eutychian (also called St. Eutychianus). 27th Pope. 275-283 AD Birthplace: Tuscany, Italy. Roman forces pull back from Transylvania and the Black Forest. 275 AD The Danube and Rhine River form the borders of the Roman Empire. Murder of Roman Emperor Aurelian by his own officers while they are on a march against Persia.275 AD Aurelian is succeeded by the Roman senator, Tacitus (200-276). During his reign, Aurelian had attempted to establish a form of solar monotheism - the worship of the “Unconquered Sun”, as the official cult of the Roman Empire. Reign of Roman Emperor Tacitus (b.200-d.276). 275-276 AD Elected by the Roman Senate and soldiers. The Goths are in Pontus (in Asia Minor). c. 275 AD The Roman Emperor Tacitus crushes the Alani and the Goths that are in Asia Minor. 275 AD Roman Emperor Tacitus is killed by his own troops. 276 AD Florianus (brother of Tacitus) is made Roman Emperor. 276 AD Florianus is not recognized by the Roman Senate. Murder of Florianus. 276 AD Marcus Aurelius Probus becomes Roman Emperor. 276 AD Probus is the choice of the Roman army. Reign of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Probus. 276-282 AD Emperor Probus drives the Alemanni, the Franks, the Vandals, and the Burgundians from Roman Gaul. Probus strengthens the wall between the Rhine and Danube Rivers. Great Wall around Rome is built against barbarian attacks. 276 AD Mani (c.216-c.276) is seized, flayed alive, and beheaded in Persia. 276 AD Mani is the founder of Manichaeanism (the Manichaean Heresy) in Persia. Extraordinary naval expedition of the Thracian Franks in the Mediterranean and northern seas. 277 AD Birth of Constantine (b.c.280-d.337). c.280 AD Beginning of the gradual conversion of Armenia from paganism to Christianity. c.280 AD Beginning of the compilation of the Jewish Talmuds. c.280 AD Martyrdom of St. Trophimus (French: Trophime) of Arles. 280 AD He is the first Bishop of Arles. Western Ch’in conquer South China. 280 AD Sima Yao, leader of the Ch’in dynasty, attempts to unite China. Roman Emperor M. Aurelius Probus is killed by his own troops at Sirmium. Marcus Aurelius Carus becomes Roman Emperor. 282 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Carus. 282-283 AD Roman Emperor Carus. Subdues Mesopotamia, defeats the Persians, and takes Ctesiphon from the Persians under Varahran II. 283 AD Emperor Carus is struck and killed by lightning at Ctesiphon. 283 AD Carus is killed by lightning while on an expedition against the Parthians, as he is about to push his conquests across the Tigris River. Numerian, the elder son of Carus, becomes Roman Emperor. His brother Carinus is co-emperor. 283-284 AD Continued persecution of the Christians under Emperor Numerian. Saint Caius (also called St. Gaius). 28th Pope. 283-296 AD Birthplace: Dalmatia. Murder of Roman Emperor Numerian. 284 AD The eastern army of the Roman Empire proclaims Gaius Aurelius Diocletianus (Diocletian) Roman Emperor. 284 AD Reign of Roman Emperor Diocletian. 284-305 AD Carinus, the co-emperor of Numerian, is killed by his troops while fighting in what is now Moravia. 285 AD Marcus Aurelius Carausius, the commander of the Roman British fleet, proclaims himself independent Emperor of Britannia (286-293). 286 AD Martyrdom of Saint Tibertius. 286 AD Condemned to death by fire, and later beheaded. Diocletian partitions the Roman Empire into two administrative divisions, the Western empire and the Eastern empire. 286 AD Diocletian rules in the East. The general Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus (Maximian) rules in the West (Italy and north Africa) from Milan. The Alemanni, the Franks, and the Burgundians cross the Rhine River. 286-288 AD Revolt of Marcus Aurelius Carausius, commander of the Roman British fleet, who proclaimed himself the emperor of Roman Britannia in 286. 287-293 AD Martyrdom of Saint Maurice (Mauritius). c.287 AD Maurice is an officer of the Theban Legion of Emperor Maximian. He is killed for refusing to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to the Roman gods as ordered by the Emperor Diocletian. Martyrdom of St. Quintinus (Quentin). 287 AD He is first tortured and then beheaded. Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian. c.288 AD On the orders of Emperor Diocletian, he is beaten to death with clubs. Famine throughout the Roman province of Britannia. 288 AD Thousands perish. Amphitheater of Verona, Italy. 290 AD Construction begins. Death of St. Paul of Narbonne. c. 290 AD He is the first Bishop of Narbonne, Gaul (France). Conquest of the Burgundians by the Goths. 290 AD Diocletian. Roman Emperor. Appoints two Caesars named Constantius and Galerius. 292 AD Narses. Rules Persia. 292-301 AD Introduction of Roman Tetrarchy. 293 AD Division of the Roman Empire into four parts. General Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus (Maximian) rules the western part (Italy and north Africa) from Milan. Diocletian rules the eastern part (Near and Middle East and Egypt) from Nicomedia (modern Izmut, Turkey). Constantius Chlorus rules Spain, Gaul, and Britannia (Trèves and York). Galerius rules Illyricum, Macedonia, and Greece (Sirmium). Birth of St. Athanasius the Great (b.c.293-d.373 AD). c.293 AD Carausius is defeated by a fellow rebel and rival general, Allectus, who claims Britain. 293 AD Allectus rules 293-296. Emperor Diocletian. Crushes a revolt against Roman rule in Roman Egypt. 294 AD Galerius defeats the Marcomanni. 295 AD Martyrdom of Saint Susanna. 295 AD She is beheaded after terrible tortures for refusing to reject Jesus Christ and worship pagan gods, and marry Emperor Diocletian’s son-in-law Maximian. Renewal of the war between Sassanian Persia and Rome. 296-297 AD Saint Marcellinus. 29th Pope. 296-304 AD Birthplace: Rome. Battle of Carrhae. 296 AD Narses of Persia routes Galerius (Diocletian’s Caesar, or deputy) near Carrhae, in northern Mesopotamia. Galerius. 297 AD Crushes Narses of Persia and recaptures Roman Mesopotamia. Martyrdom of St. Felician and St. Primus, his brother. c. 297 AD During the persecution of Christians by Emperor Diocletian and Maximian. They are imprisoned, scourged, tortured, and executed at Nomentum near Rome, when they refuse to deny the divinity of Jesus Christ. They refused to sacrifice to the Roman pagan gods. The Romans conquer Armenia from the Persian Sassanians. 297 AD Constantius (Diocletian’s caesar or deputy) ends the revolt of Allectus in the Roman province of Britannia. Britannia is recovered. 296 AD Conversion of Tiridates III, King of Armenia, from paganism to Christianity. 297 AD Introduction of Christianity into Armenia. c.298 AD Mainly as a result of the conversion of Tiridates III, King of Armenia. The immense Baths of Diocletian are built in Rome. c. 298-303 AD Constantius Chlorus (caesar of Diocletian). Crushes the Alemanni barbarians in Roman Gaul. 298 AD Martyrdom of St. Marcellus the Centurion. 298 AD Tortured and executed by sword for refusing to reject Jesus Christ. Beginning of the separate developments of the five Germanic dukedoms: Saxons, Franks, Alemanni, Thuringians, and Goths. c.300 AD The Lombards begin to move southward from the Lower Elbe. c.300 AD They will arrive in Italy in 568. Records of the earliest Christian religious plays. c.300 AD Height of Roman power and influence in the Roman province of Britannia. 300-350 AD Palace of Diocletian in Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik). Begun. c.300 AD More than ten thousand Christians are condemned to work on the baths of Diocletian in Rome. They are slaughtered by Diocletian’s orders. c.300 AD Funan (Cambodia) is ruled by an Indian Brahman, who introduces Hinduism, Indian legal code, and the alphabet of Central India. c. 300 AD Mayan civilization in southern Mexico enters a period during which its influence spreads into what are now called Guatemala and Honduras. This civilization will finally collapse c.900. c.300 AD Hormisdas II. Rules Sassanian Persia. 301-309 AD Diocletian at Nicomedia limits prices with an Edict of Maximum Prices. Price controls are introduced by Rome because of inflation. 301 AD Uprisings in the interior of the Roman Empire are suppressed. 301 AD Tiridates III, the King of Armenia makes Christianity the state religion. 301 AD He is the first ruler to do this. Death of St. Gatien (Gratianus or Gatianus) at Tours. Dec. 20, 301 AD He is the first Bishop of Tours, Gaul (France). Martyrdom of Saint Vitus at Lucania. c.303 AD Edict of the Emperor Diocletian against Christians. Feb. 23, 303 AD This is the tenth, last, and greatest persecution (lasts 10 years until 313) of the followers of Jesus Christ (the Diocletian Persecution). General murder and persecution of all Christians is proclaimed. Persecutions will continue until the Edict of Milan (in 313). Breaks out in Nicomedia. Under the Roman Emperor Diocletian, the Christians throughout the Roman Empire are captured, tortured and executed. 303-305 AD If they reject Jesus Christ they are allowed to live. Martyrdom of Saint Cyriacus. March 16, 303 AD Martyrdom of Saint George. He is beheaded at Lydda, Palestine. April 23, 303 AD Martyrdom of St. Erasmus (also known as St. Elmo), Bishop of Formiae, Campagna, Italy, during the Diocletian Persecution of the Christians throughout the Roman Empire. June 2, 303 AD Martyrdom of Saint Gorgonius. 303 AD An officer of Diocletian’s household, he is tortured to death for converting many of the Emperor’s household from paganism to Christianity. Martyrdom of Saint Januarius. September 19, 303 AD Saint Januarius is martyred near Pozzuoli during the Christian persecutions under the Roman Emperor Diocletian. Martyrdom of Saint Lucy (Lucia). 303 AD Martyrdom of St. Cosmas and St. Damian, twin brothers born in Arabia. They are tortured and then beheaded along with their three brothers, Anthimus, Euprepius, and Leontius. 303 AD Martyrdom of St. Macra. 303 AD She is exposed to the fire, her breasts are cut off, and then she is thrown upon a bed of red hot coals. Martyrdom of St. Cyrus (Italian: Ciro). Alexandrian. January 31, 303 AD He is tortured and then beheaded at Canopus, Egypt during the Diocletian Persecutions. Martyrdom of St. Devota. Corsican. 303 AD Martyrdom of St. Dorothea (Dorothy). c. 303 AD She refuses to sacrifice to the pagan gods during the reign of Diocletian. She is tortured first and then ordered executed. Martyrdom of St. Pantaleon (Panteleimon). July 27, 303 AD He is first tortured and then beheaded (under Maximian). Roman Emperor Diocletian. Proclaims Mithras (Mithraism) the protector of the Roman Empire. 304 AD Martyrdom of Saint Agnes. c. 304 AD During the Diocletian Persecution, she is first tortured and then beheaded for refusing to reject Jesus Christ. Martyrdom of St. Alban. 304 AD When he refuses to reject Jesus Christ and worship the pagan gods, he is first tortured and then beheaded. Martyrdom of St. Faustus, St. Januarius, and St. Martial. 304 AD During Diocletian’s persecution of Christians at what is now called Cordoba, Spain, all three are subjected to terrible tortures and then burned to death. They are sometimes called “the Three Crowns of Cordoba.” Martyrdom of St. Victor of Marseilles. 304 AD He refuses to reject Jesus Christ and offer sacrifice to Jupiter. Martyrdom of St. Florian. 304 AD He is first scourged and then thrown into the River Enns with a heavy rock tied around his neck. Martyrdom of St. Vincent of Saragossa. 304 AD Subjected to extended and fatal tortures by Dacian, the Roman governor of the Province. Martyrdom of St. Pollio. April 28, 304 AD He is burned while he is still alive. Martyrdom of St. Euphemia. September 16, 304 AD She refuses to worship Ares, one of the Greek pagan gods, at Chalcedon. She is first tortured and then bitten to death by a bear. Note: Compare the name Euphemia with the word blasphemia. Martyrdom of St. Felix. 304 AD He is first tortured and then beheaded at Rome for refusing to reject Jesus Christ. Martyrdom of St. Adrian. c. 304 AD He is first tortured and then put to death. Martyrdom of St. Eulalia of Mérida. c. 304 AD Martyrdom of St. Cassian. 304 AD Refuses to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to pagan gods. Martyrdom of St. Justina of Padua. 304 AD Diocletian retires to Split during his persecution of the Christians. 304 AD For nine years, Diocletian lives as a private citizen in Split, growing cabbages. He is in sorrow, frustration, and disappointment. Diocletian will die in 313. Death of Pope Marcellinus. 304 AD There is no Pope for four years until Marcellus I in 308. Final abdication of Diocletian in the East and Maximian in the West. 305 AD End of the reign of Diocletian. Eighteen years of civil war will follow. The territories that are ruled by Diocletian and Maximian go to their deputies Augustus Constantius Chlorus (the father of the future Constantine the Great) in the West and Galerius in the East. 305 AD Constantius I Chlorus. Defeats the Picts and the Scots. 305 AD St. Antony the Great (250-356). Organizes at Fayum the colony of Christians that had grown around his retreat, into a loosely organized monastery with a rule. c.305 AD It is the first Christian monastery. He puts emphasis on recognizing and defeating Satan and his demons. Constantius I Chlorus (the father of the future Constantine the Great). Stops the Tenth Persecution of the followers of Jesus Christ. 305 AD Death of Maximian in Roman Britain at York. 306 AD Constantine leaves home to join his father, Constantius I Chlorus. 306 AD He covers the enormous distance through Bithynia, Thrace, Dacia, Italy, and Gaul. Constantine arrives at the English Channel just as his father is preparing to set out for Britain. Constantine accompanies his father Constantius I, who had easily conquered the Caledonians (Picts and Scots) but dies in York. July 25, 306 AD Immediately, Constantine is proclaimed at York, Augustus in his stead. The troops proclaim him Roman Emperor, and Galerius accepts him as sovereign of all of the Cisalpine Roman provinces. Constantine agrees to be Caesar (deputy) to Flavius Valerius Severus, who was Caesar of Constantius I Chlorus. Constantine does not win a clear title to the throne until his dramatic victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 AD). However, for all practical purposes, he is in fact Emperor Constantine I. Constantine I rules 306-d.337. Galerius replaces Flavius Valerius Severus with Licinus. 306 AD Constantine I, the Great, is Emperor in the East. 306 AD He will rule the East until his death in 337 AD. Constantine. Defeats the Franks who had invaded Gaul (modern day France). 306 AD Maxentius, son of Maximian, is Emperor in the West. 306-312 AD Maxentius will fiercely persecute the Christians up until his death in 312. Famine throughout Cappadocia, Asia Minor. 307 AD Number of thousands of deaths is unknown. Martyrdom of St. Catherine of Alexandria. November 25, 307 AD Maxentius (son of Maximian). Orders the execution of Flavius Valerius Severus. 307 AD St. James of Nisibis (d.338). Syrian. Named first bishop of Nisibis, Mesopotamia. c. 308 AD He builds a basilica and founds a school of Theology there. He will be a fierce opponent of the Arian Heresy (Arianism) at the Council of Nicaea (325). Martyrdom of St. Quirinus, Bishop of Siscia (Sisak, Croatia). 308 AD During the persecution of Christians throughout the Roman Empire. When he refuses to sacrifice to pagan gods, he is tortured and then drowned in the Raab River at Sabaria (modern Szombathely, Hungary). Saint Marcellus I. 30th Pope. 308-309 AD Birthplace: Rome. Maxentius is recognized by the praetorians. 308 AD He banishes his father Maximian to Roman Gaul. Saint Eusebius. 31st Pope. 309-310 AD Birthplace: Greece. Martyrdom of St. Pamphilus. 309 AD He is first tortured and then beheaded for refusing to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to the pagan gods. Martyrdom of St. Emigdio (Italian: Emidio) (c.273-309). Cephalophore. August 5, 309 AD He is beheaded. Reign of Shapur II of the Sassanian Empire (Persia). 309-379 AD He is the Persian king from birth (309). Carries on a series of wars with Rome. During his rule, Shapur II will recover Armenia from the Romans. Anthrax spreads throughout the Roman Empire. 309 AD St. Hilarion. Establishes a foundation for hermits in Palestine. c.310 AD Famine. England. Almost 40,000 perish. c.310 AD Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus. Having been twice discovered in conspiracy against his son-in-law, he is ordered to choose the manner of his death. He strangles himself to death. 310 AD St. Melchiades (also called Meltiades or Miltiades). 32nd Pope. Birthplace: Roman North Africa. 311-314 AD Martyrdom of St. Peter of Alexandria. 311 AD Valerius Licinianus Licinus. Emperor in the West. As a pagan, he rejects the Christian doctrine of Salvation, Redemption, and Deliverance. 311 AD Martyrdom of Saint Achatius. May 8, 311 AD Tortured and then beheaded under Flascius, the proconsul of Thracia. St. Anthony the Great (Antonio Magnus). Goes to Alexandria, during the persecutions, in order to give encouragement to the Christians that are being persecuted there. 311 AD Constantine begins his march on Rome. 311 AD Savage Huns from the north sack the Chinese city of Luoyang. 311 AD They kill 30,000 Chinese. Martyrdom of St. Lucian of Antioch. Jan. 7, 312 AD Arrested at Nicomedia when Emperor Diocletian’s persecution of the Christians began in 303. After a long imprisonment of nine years during which he refused to reject Christ and sacrifice to pagan gods, he is finally convicted of being a follower of Jesus Christ. He is racked and then sworded to death at Nicomedia, Bithynia. Conversion of Constantine the Great. On the eve of the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Oct. 27, 312 AD (“In hoc signo vinces”). Constantine is the first Roman Emperor to convert from paganism to Christianity. Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Oct. 28, 312 AD Constantine defeats and kills Augustus Maxentius, son of Maximian, at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (nine miles from Rome). Constantine defeats the last of his rivals. Constantine takes the city of Rome. 312 AD Constantine the Great becomes Emperor of the Western Empire. 312 AD The Arch of Constantine. Rome. 312-315 AD Death of Diocletian. 313 AD Roman Emperor from 284-305. Constantine and Licinius rule the west and east Empire. 313-323 AD Edict of Milan. 313 AD Promulgated by Emperor Constantine I and his fellow Emperor Licinius. The Edict of Milan makes Christianity legal in the Roman Empire. All Christian prisoners are released from prisons. Restoration of Christians’ confiscated property. After 280 years, the religion for which millions had been killed since the Crucifixion, begins to become the religion of the Roman Empire. Licinius. Defeats Maximin. 313 AD Maximinus Daia commits suicide. 313 AD Donatus. Bishop of Carthage. 313 AD Beginning of the Donatist Heresy (Donatism) against the Catholic Church. Pope St. Miltiades (also called Melchiades). Holds a synod at the Lateran Palace. 313 AD He condemns Donatus (the Donatist Heresy, i.e. Donatism). St. Alexander (c.250-328). Named Bishop of Alexandria, Egypt. 313 AD Saint Sylvester I. 33rd Pope. 314-335 AD Birthplace: Rome. Council of Arles. Condemns the Donatist Heresy (Donatism). Also reaffirms the primacy of Rome in the Christian Church. 314 AD St. Macarius (d.c.335). Named Bishop of Jerusalem. 314 AD Fights against the Arian Heresy. He will be one of the signers of the decrees of the Council of Nicaea (325). Battle of Cibalae. October 8, 314 AD Constantine defeats Licinianus Licinius, his co-emperor of the east. Licinius loses most of the Balkans. Martyrdom of Saint Blaise. Bishop of Sebaste, Armenia. Feb. 3, 316 AD He is beheaded after terrible torments by order of Agricolaus, the Governor of Cappadocia and Lower Armenia, during the persecution under Licinius. Birth of Saint Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397) at Sabaria in Pannonia. 316 AD Licinianus Licinius. Withdraws from his position of allowing Christians to live and starts the executions once again. 316 AD Alexander (c.244-340). Elected patriarch of Constantinople. He is seventy three years old. 317 AD White Huns begin their invasion of China. 317 AD China is divided once again, from 317 until 589. 317 AD St. Athanasius (c.293-373). “Contra Gentes” (“Against the Gentiles”). c. 318-323 AD St. Athanasius is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Church. Appearance of the Heresiarch Arius (the Arian Heresy). 318 AD Arius, a priest of Alexandria, teaches that the Son of God was created. Teaches that Jesus, as a human being, did not share the essential nature of God. He rejects the oneness of God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. The Arian Heresy (Arianism) will last 318-381. Martyrdom of St. Theodota. 318 AD She is scourged, racked, torn with an iron comb, and then stoned to death for refusing to deny Jesus Christ and sacrifice to Apollo. St. Pachomius (c.292-348). In response to a vision bidding him to build a Christian monastery at Tabennisi, on the Nile River in Egypt, he builds a cell there. c. 318 AD Later establishes a monastery. He rejects the Arian Heresy (Arianism). Licinianus Licinius continues the severe persecutions of the Christians in the East once again. 319 AD Forty Martyrs of Sebastia. 320 AD Strife of the Donatists (Donatism) in Roman north Africa. 320 AD Excommunication of the Heresiarch Arius by a council convened by Alexander, the Bishop of Alexandria, Egypt. 320 AD Introduction of Christianity into the Kingdom of Auxem. 320-350 AD Chandragupta I (d.330). Crowned first Gupta emperor of northern India. 320 AD Founds the Gupta dynasty in India. Reign of Chandragupta I. 320-330 AD AD Establishes the Gupta Empire that will rule India 320-c.544. His reign marks the high point of Hinduism in India. Fresh raids by the Goths are driven back. 321 AD Licinianus Licinius. Orders the execution of Christians throughout the eastern empire. 322 AD St. Pachomius. Institutes an early monastic community in Egypt. 323 AD Constantine determines to stop the torture and execution of Christians under the rule of Licinianus Licinus. 323 AD Battle of Adrianople. July 3, 323 AD Emperor Constantine wins a decisive victory over Licinianus Licinius at Adrianople (Hadrianopolis). Licinius retreats into Byzantium. 20,000 total war dead. Battle of Chrysopolis (Scutari). Sept. 18, 324 AD In a deadly assault, Constantine’s regulars kill almost 20,000 of the 50,000 men opposing them. Licinianus Licinius is captured. He capitulates. Constantine has Licinianus Licinius executed at Salonika. 324 AD Constantine. After conquering his co-emperor Licinius, reunites the western and eastern parts of the empire under Rome and becomes the sole ruler (emperor). Constantine rules 324-337. 324 AD Constantine rules from the Euphrates River to the Clyde in the Roman province of Britannia. St. Sylvester. Pope. Consecration of the church that is called “Saint John Lateran” (Basilica) in Rome. 324 AD Constantine declares Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. Christianity is no longer illegal. 324 AD Council of Nicaea. May 20-June 325 AD This is the first ecumenical or general council of the church. The Council of Nicaea is called by Emperor Constantine the Great in Bithynia, in Asia Minor. 318 Bishops attend to reaffirm the Apostolic Christian doctrines. They formulate the Christian creed (the Nicene Creed). Representatives of the four Patriarchates of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome are present at the Council of Nicaea. The Council is held under Pope St. Sylvester I. Only six Bishops represent the West. These are: Hosius, Bishop of Cordova. Caecilian, Bishop of Carthage. Eustorgius, Bishop of Milan. Marcus, Bishop of Calabria. Domnus, Bishop of Strido (in Pannonia). Nicasius, Bishop of Dijon. The false doctrines of the heretic Arius (Arianism) are condemned and unanimously rejected by 318 bishops of the Catholic Church. Arius is excommunicated. Donatism is condemned. Constantine. Begins building the foundations of his new city, Byzantium (it will be known as Constantinople). 325 AD Constantine. Forbids government officials to offer sacrifices or worship to the pagan gods of Greece, Rome, Egypt, or Asia. 325 AD Constantine. The first Christian emperor, forbids the gladiatorial games. These games seem to have been a survival of the widespread ancient practice of offering human sacrifices at the funerals of great chieftains. 325 AD Construction of the first Church of the Nativity of Jesus Christ, Bethlehem. Will be destroyed by fire in 529. 325 AD Severe, bitter famine throughout England. 325 AD Helena, the mother of Constantine, goes to Jerusalem. She discovers the True Cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Sept. 14, 326 AD St. Athanasius (c.293-373) “De Incarnatione Verbi Dei”. c.326-328 AD (“On the Incarnation of the Word”). Savage persecution of Christians begins in Persia. 326 AD Will continue to c. 480. St. Peter’s at Rome, founded by Emperor Constantine, is consecrated by St. Silvester. Nov. 18, 326 AD Martyrdom of St. Jonas, St. Barachisius, and their Companions. 327 AD Under King Sapor II of Persia, they are frightfully tortured for refusing to reject Jesus Christ and worship the Sun. They are eventually put to death. Saint Athanasius (b.c. 293-d.373). Elected Bishop of Alexandria upon the death of his predecessor Bishop Alexander of Alexandria. 328 AD St. Gregory Nazianzen the Elder (c. 276-374). Becomes bishop of Nazianzus, falls into heresy, but is brought back to orthodoxy in 361 by his son St. Gregory Nazianzen (c. 329-389). c.328 AD Murder of Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine. 326 AD Murder of Fausta, wife of Constantine. Constantine, with his mother Helena, begin the building of basilicas. Helena (250-330). Discovery of the tomb where Jesus Christ was buried in Jerusalem (the Holy Sepulchre). 328 AD Birth of Saint Basil the Great (329-379) in Caesarea. 329 AD Founding of Constantinople. 330 AD Constantine builds the eastern capital of Constantinople on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantine. Constantine moves the capital of the Roman Empire, to the site of Byzantium, the old Greek colony. He establishes the new capital of the Roman Empire at Constantinople. Byzantium is renamed Constantinople. Constantinople is made the seat of the Roman Empire in the East. Solemn inauguration. May 11, 330 AD Construction of the Church of St. Peter’s Basilica is completed. This structure will be taken down in 1506 in order to make room for the present day Cathedral of St. Peter. 330 AD The Basilica is built over the burial site of Saint Peter the Apostle, on the Vatican Hill. Eusebius of Nicomedia, a supporter of Arius (Arianism), persuades Emperor Constantine to direct St. Athanasius to admit Arius to communion. St. Athanasius refuses to obey the order. 330 AD Birth of St. Gregory of Nyssa. 330 AD Famine. Antioch. 331 AD The city of Antioch is so starved that a bushel of wheat sells for 400 pieces of silver. Tens of thousands die. Edict of Constantine. 331 AD Directed against heresy. Forbids assemblies of heretics and orders the confiscation of their meeting places. Martyrdom of St. Gregory the Illuminator (257-332). c. 332 AD Helped to free Armenia from the Persians. Constantine. Mounts his campaign against the Tervingi from his base in Oltenia. Defeats the Tervingi. 332 AD Maximinius of Trier. Succeeds St. Agritius as Bishop of Trier. 333 AD Ausonius sets up his school of Rhetoric at Bordeaux (in Gaul). 334 AD Saint Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Born at Sabaria, Pannonia (in modern Hungary), he experiences his conversion from paganism to Christianity. 334 AD St. Macarius (d.c. 335). Bishop of Jerusalem. Consecrates the Church of the Holy Sepulcher of Jesus. Sept. 13, 335 AD He had been commissioned to build the church in Jerusalem by the Emperor Constantine. St. Macarius also supervised the actual building of the basilica. St. Macarius the Younger (d. 394). He is also known as St. Macarius of Alexandria. Becomes a monk in the Thebaid, Upper Egypt. 335 AD He spends the remaining sixty years of his life as a hermit. In 373 he will move to Lower Egypt. Council of Tyre. 335 AD Council is hostile to St. Athanasius. Arius (Arian Heresy) is banished by Constantine. St. Athanasius is banished to Trier in Germany. This is his first exile. 335 AD St. Marcus (St. Mark). 34th Pope. 336-337 AD Birthplace: Rome. Famine and plague throughout Syria. 336 AD Tens of thousands perish. The Death of Arius (Arianism). 336 AD The great Heresiarchy, Arius, comes to Constantinople with an order from the Emperor that he be received into the Church by St. Alexander (c. 244-340), the Patriarch of Constantinople. St. Alexander prays that either he himself or Arius be removed. Arius teaches that Jesus Christ is the highest creation of God. He rejects the indivisible Trinity. He rejects the oneness of God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. The day before the scheduled reception of Arius by St. Alexander, Arius dies a sudden and horrible death in a public lavatory. Shapur II, ruler of Persia, embarks on a new warf against the Romans. Defeats Roman forces. 337 AD The Romans fight a series of wars with the Persians, which will end (363) with the loss of parts of Armenia and Mesopotamia. 337 AD Shapur II of Persia demands the restitution of all the provinces that Persia had formerly possessed in Asia Minor. Saint Julius I. 35th Pope. 337-352 AD Birthplace: Rome. Vandals driven by the Goths obtain leave to settle in Pannonia. 337 AD Death of Constantine the Great. 337 AD Constantine dies at Nicomedia after being baptized on his deathbed by Eusebius of Nicomedia. Constantine is 64 years old. Constantine is succeeded by his three sons (co-emperors) Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans. St. Julius is Pope Julius I. 337-352 AD 35th Pope. St. Athanasius (b.c.293-d.373) re-enters Alexandria, Egypt. 337 AD Meeting of the three sons of Constantine the Great at Viminiacum in order to partition the Roman Empire. 338 AD St. Athanasius leaves Alexandria, another bishop Gregory, having been appointed in his place. St. Athanasius stays at Rome and speaks of St. Antony the Great (Antonius Magnus), and the monastic movement in Egypt. Second exile of St. Athanasius: 340 until 346. 340 AD Constantine II is killed in the Battle of Aquileia, fighting against his brother Constans. 340 AD With the death of Constantine II, Rome splits again into two parts, with Constans as the Western Emperor and Constantius II as the Eastern Emperor. 340 AD Birth of St. Ambrose (b.c.340-d.397) at Treves. 340 AD Ambrose will later baptize St. Augustine of Hippo. Introduction of monasticism from Egypt to Western Christendom by Saint Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, in Egypt. 340 AD Saint Frumentius (d.c. 380). Begins the conversion of Ethiopia from paganism to Christianity. 340 AD Saint Eusebius (c. 283-371). Elected Bishop of Vercelli. 340 AD Death of St. Macrina the Elder. 340 AD Pappus of Alexandria (c.300-c.350). “Synagoge” (“Mathematical Collections”). 340 AD Writings on Geometry. Pappus of Alexandria (c.300-c.350). Describes five machines that are in use. c.340 AD The lever, the pulley, the screw, the wedge, and the cogwheel. Shapur II. King of Sassanian Persia. Orders thousands of Christians to be executed in Persia. 341 AD Martyrdom of St. Simeon Barsabae. 341 AD As the Bishop of Seleucia and Ctesphon, he is arrested during the persecutions of Sapor (Shapur) II, King of Persia. He refuses to reject Jesus Christ and worship the Sun. He is first tortured and then imprisoned. After being forced to witness the beheading of over one hundred members of his church, he himself is beheaded. Council at Antioch (also called the “Council of Dedication”). 341 AD The Eusebians produce an Arian formula at Antioch. Ulfilas (Wulfila), 311-c.383, becomes Bishop of the Visigoths at the Synod of Antioch. Ulfilas is an Arian. 341 AD Ulfilas produces a translation of the Holy Scriptures into Gothic (the language of Gothia). Wulfila begins the conversion of the Visigoths to Arianism. 341 AD Resettles them (c. 348) in the Balkans. Death of St. Paul the Hermit (Paul of Thebes) (229-342). He is one hundred and thirteen years old. 342 AD The Eusebians (Arians) produce a second Arian (Arianism) formula at Philippopolis. 342 AD Visit of semi-Arian bishops to Constans with a form of the “Council of Dedication” creed. 342 AD St. Julius I. Pope: 337-352. Julius I holds a council in Rome and pronounces the complete innocence of St. Athanasius (anti-Arianism). 342 AD Birth of Saint Jerome (Eusebius Heironymus), c. 342-420, at Strido, near Aquileia, Dalmatia. c. 342 AD Death of Saint Nicholas of Myra (Bishop of Myra). Dec. 6, 343 AD Dies at Myra. His remains will be moved to Bari, Italy in 1087. Council of Sardica. 343-344 AD Made up of half western bishops and half eastern bishops. They attempt to issue a new creed; conflict over the word “homoousion”. Attempts at reconciliation fail (344). The Eusebians (Arians) produce a third Arian (Arianism) formula, once again at Antioch. 344 AD Death of Gregory (the Arian Bishop of Alexandria). St. Athanasius is restored to Alexandria. 345 AD Birth of Saint John Chrysostom (347-407) in Antioch. 347 AD One of the four Greek Fathers of the Church. St. Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315-386). “Catecheses” (on the Christian doctrine). c. 348 AD Provides a clear explanation of the instruction that is given to those that are preparing for Baptism. Discusses the indivisible Trinity, the Incarnation, Salvation, Redemption, and Deliverance. Death of St. Pachomius (c. 292-348). May 15, 348 AD St. Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315-386). Succeeds St. Maximus as Bishop of Jerusalem. 349 AD St. Athanasius (c.293-373). Writes “Discourses Against the Arians”. 349-352 AD Explains the errors of the Arian Heresy (Arianism). German born Roman general Flavius Magnus Magnentius attempts to usurp the Roman throne and kills co-emperor Constans. 350 AD Magnentius becomes Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Saint Anthony the Great (251-356). Goes to Alexandria to preach against Arianism. Arianism is the doctrine teaching that Jesus Christ the Son is not co-equal and co-eternal with God the Father. At this time Antony is about 100 years old. ca.350 AD The Sassanian Persians regain Armenia from the Romans. 350 AD St. Hilary of Poitier (France) renounces paganism and is baptized in the name of Jesus Christ. 350 AD The Huns, nomads from Central Asia, begin to invade Europe. c. 350 AD Hermanric. King of the Ostrogoths. 350-375 AD Schola Cantorum. Rome. 350 AD Founded for church music and singing. Santa Costanza Church. Rome. c.350 AD St. Basil (329-379). Enters the University of Athens. c. 351 AD He remains there for five years. He studies History, Poetics, Geometry, Astronomy, Philosophy, Logic, Dialectics, Grammar, and Rhetoric. Armenia aligns itself with the Roman Empire against Persia. 351 AD Battle of Mursa. Sept. 28, 351 AD Constantius II, the Roman co-emperor, with an army of 40,000 men, defeats the usurper, Magnentius leading 50,000 men at Mursa, near the Danube-Drave confluence (in the future Yugoslavia). 27,000 total war dead. Constantius II pursues Magnentius into Gaul. Constantius II, from 350-361, moves to exterminate orthodox Christianity and deal with St. Athanasius once and for all. 352 AD Constantius II is a follower of the Arian Heresy (Arianism). Constantius makes a determined effort to reject the Nicean doctrine (Christianity) and promulgate the Arian Heresy throughout the Roman Empire. Election of Liberius. 352 AD 36th Pope (352-366). Constantius II. Determines to force a form of semi-Arianism on the Christian Church. Constantius II wages a fierce attack against the anti-Arian St. Athanasius and the Nicene Creed. 352 AD Chondomar. Leads serious invasions of Germanic barbarians. 352 AD Magnentius, in order to avoid capture by Constantine II, commits suicide. Leaves Constantius II in complete command of the Roman Empire. 353 AD The unity of the Roman Empire is re-established once again. Constantius II reunites the Roman Empire as Emperor of both the West and the East. He makes his headquarters at Sirmium. 353 AD St. Hilary of Poitiers (d. 368). Elected Bishop of Poitiers, despite his objections to taking the position. c.353 AD Birth of St. Paulinus of Nola, near Bordeaux, France. 353 AD Constantius II (Arian) causes packed council at Arles to condemn St. Athanasius (Christian/anti-Arian). 353 AD Constantius II (Arian) exiles Pope Liberius (Christian) and appoints the Arian archdeacon Felix to succeed him as pope. 353 AD St. Nerses the Great (d.c. 373). He is made Katholikos of the Armenians against his will. 353 AD Birth of Augustine (Aurelius Augustinus) (b.354-d.430) at Tagaste in Roman Numidia. 354 AD The false pope Felix (Arian) is rejected by the people as pope. 354 AD Constantius II decrees Christmas day to be held on December 25. 354 AD Baptism of Saint Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). 354 AD Constantius II (Arian). Appoints Julian to be his Caesar (deputy). 355 AD Constantius sends him to lead a campaign in Gaul against the Franks and the Alemanni. St. Hilary of Poitiers (d. 368). Refuses to attend the synod at Milan that has been called by the Arian Emperor Constantius II, at which the bishops present are required to sign a condemnation of St. Athanasius or else be sent into exile. 355 AD Packed council held at request of pope is held at Milan, Italy. 355 AD Constantius II (Arian) forces bishops to condemn St. Athanasius (anti-Arian) and sign an Arian creed or else be sent into exile. Lucifer of Calarais, Eusebius of Vercellae, Dionysius of Milan, St. Hilary of Poitier, Rhodianus of Toulouse, and Pope Liberius refuse to sign the Arian creed and are condemned to exile. The Alemanni cross the Rhine River and enter into Eastern Gaul. 355 AD The great invasion of the Germanic barbarians grows in intensity. The barbarians reach as far as Autun. Saint Basil the Great (329-379). Teaches Rhetoric at Caesarea. 355 AD St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Now aged forty, and serving in the Roman army at Worms, under Julian, Martin obtains a discharge from the army. 356 AD He will live in Italy for a while. Martin will later join St. Hilary at Poitiers. St. Hilary of Poitiers (anti-Arian). St. Hilary is condemned for his Christian orthodoxy (anti-Arianism) by the synod of Béziers, presided over by the Arian Bishop Saturninus of Arles. The synod is composed mainly of Arian bishops. 356 AD St. Hilary of Poitiers is condemned to exile by the Emperor Constantius II to Phrygia, Asia Minor. Period of exile: 356-359. St. Athanasius (anti-Arian). Third Exile. 356-361 AD St. Hilary of Poitiers (d.368). “De Trinitate” (“On the Trinity). Begins. 356-360 AD The Franks and the Alemanni pour into Roman Gaul. 356-357 AD Death of Saint Anthony the Great (251-356). January 17, 356 AD He lived to the age of one hundred and five. St. Athanasius is threatened once again. Athanasius goes into the desert with the monks. 356 AD Constantius II (Arian) sets foot in Rome for the first time. 357 AD Julian. Roman general. Defeats the Alemanni at Strasbourg and drives them back across the Rhine River. 357 AD Liberius weakens and signs against St. Athanasius. 357 AD Council of Sirmium. 357 AD Declaration of Arianism is signed by many Arian false bishops. St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397) is ordained an exorcist by St. Hilary of Poitiers (c.315-368). c.357 AD St. Athanasius publishes the “Life of St. Antony the Great”. 357 AD Baptism of Saint Basil the Great (329-379). He is 27 years of age. 357 AD St. Basil the Great (329-379). Settles by the Iris River in Pontus, Asia Minor. 358 AD Council of Seleucia in the East. 359 AD 150 eastern bishops are forced to reject the Christian creed and accept a false Arian creed (Arianism). St. Hilary of Poitiers (d. 368). Succeeds in refuting Arianism at the council of Eastern bishops held at Seleucia. He so encourages the clergy to reject the Arian Heresy that the Arian heretics request that the Arian Emperor send him back to Gaul. 359 AD St. Athanasius. “De Synodis”. 359 AD Council of Ariminum (Rimini). 359 AD 400 bishops assemble. 320 bishops defend the Nicene Creed and doctrine. 80 bishops are Arians (Arianism). After seven months, they eventually agree to sign the formulary, avoiding the word “homoousion”. St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Sets up a hermitage on the island of Gallinaria. 359 AD He is accompanied by a presbyter. Birth of Gratian. Future Emperor. 359 AD Destruction of the city of Nicomedia, Asia Minor by earthquake. 359 AD The city of Nicomedia, Bythnia is leveled by an earthquake. Most of the thousands of inhabitants are buried. Second Persian War with Rome. 359-361 AD 30,000 total war dead. St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Returns to Gaul. 360 AD St. Hilary of Poitiers (d. 368) “De Trinitate, libris XII” (“On the Trinity"). 360 AD Completed. Baptism of Saint Jerome (c. 342-420) by Pope Liberius at Rome. 360 AD Council of Constantinople. Jan. 360 AD Delegates sign the Arian creed of Ariminum (Rimini). Delegates attend the dedication of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople. St. Hilary of Poitiers (d.368). While Hilary is in exile in Constantinople, he writes an open letter “Contra Constantium imperatorem”. 360 AD Banishment of St. Hilary of Poitier (d.368) is ended by the Emperor. Hilary is ordered back to his home in Poitiers, Gaul. 360 AD Julian is taken by his troops and crowned Augustus. April 360 AD Macedonius. Heresiarch. Rise of Macedonianism, the doctrine that the Holy Spirit is not co-equal and not co-eternal with God the Father and God the Son. c. 360 AD That is to say, that the Holy Spirit (the Holy Ghost) is a creation of God. This heresy advanced by the heresiarch Macedonius, the Bishop of Constantinople, will later be condemned by the Council of Constantinople that will be held in 381 AD. Founding of the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas in Kansu by Lo-tsun, a Chinese Buddhist. 360 AD The Huns invade Europe. 360 AD The Picts, Irish, Scots, and Saxons cross Hadrian's Wall and invade Roman Britain. 360-369 AD Beginning of the gradual replacement of scrolls by books. 360 AD Julian Apostata marches towards Constantius II at Antioch. 361 AD St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Arrives at Ligugé in order to found his first community. Martin will remain at Ligugé until 371. 361 AD Death of Constantius II (Arian). He is 44 years old. Nov. 361 AD Julian the Apostate enters the city of Constantinople. Dec. 361 AD Reign of Julian the Apostate (Apostata). Emperor. 361-363 AD Denies the divinity of Jesus Christ. Rejects the indivisible Trinity. Rejects the Virgin birth, the Incarnation, and the Resurrection. Rejects the Old Testament and the New Testament. Unsuccessfully attempts to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem. Julian the Apostate attempts to replace Christianity with Mithraism, a pagan religion, developed out of Zoroastrianism. Gregory the Great is ordained presbyter. 361 AD St. Gregory Nazianzen (c. 329-389). c. 362 AD He is ordained, but most unwillingly. St. Gregory Nazianzen is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Church. Council at Alexandria. 362 AD Held under the chairmanship of St. Athanasius (anti-Arianism). Julian the Apostate (Apostata). Issues an edict against St. Athanasius. 362 AD Julian the Apostate. Campaigns against the Sassanian Persians (Shapur II). 362-363 AD Martyrdoms of St. Juventius and St. Maximinus. January 25, 363 AD They are officers of the guard of Emperor Julian the Apostate. They are tortured, scourged, and then beheaded at Antioch when they refuse to reject Jesus Christ and sacrifice to the pagan gods. Martyrdom of St. Donato (Donatus) of Arezzo. August 7, 362 AD He is beheaded at Arezzo, Italy during the reign of the pagan Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate (Apostata). Martyrdom of St. Elpidius. September 26, 362 AD He is first tortured and then burned to death during the reign of the Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate. Ordination of Saint Basil the Great (329-379) at Caesarea. 363 AD Returns to Pontus because of a disagreement with Archbishop Eusebius. Death of Julian the Apostate (Apostata). 363 AD He is killed by an arrow during the Battle of Samarra fighting against the Sassanian Persians near Samarra, on the Tigris River. Reign of Roman Emperor Jovian (b.331-d.364). 363-364 AD Elected by soldiers. His full name is Flavius Iovianus. Emperor Jovian. Surrenders Mesopotamia to the Persians. 363 AD Emperor Jovian makes peace with Persia. 363 AD Rome and Persia are at peace. 363-420 AD Restoration of Christianity by Emperor Jovian. 363 AD Jovian dies. 364 AD Soldiers elect Valentinian I Emperor of the West with his brother, Valens (364-378) co-emperor in the East. Division of the Roman Empire into West and East. 364 AD Valens (364-378). Rules the Eastern Roman Empire from the Lower Danube River to the Persian border. Valens is an avowed Arian (Arianism). Valentinian I (364-375). Rules the Western Empire from Caledonia in Roman Britannia to northwestern Roman Africa. The Roman scholar Ausonius is summoned to the Roman court in order to teach Gratian, the son of Valentinian I. 364 AD St. Hilary of Poitiers (d.368). Holds a public debate at Milan, Italy, with Auxentius, the Arian (Arian heresy) usurper of the see of Milan. 364 AD Valens. Arian ruler of the Eastern Empire. 365 AD Banishes all Christian (anti-Arian) bishops. They must be Arian (Arian Heresy). Gregory Nazianzen (c.329-389). Requests St. Basil (329-379) the Great for his assistance in combating Arianism (the Arian Heresy) in Nazianzus. 365 AD Earthquake. Alexandria, Egypt. 365 AD The city of Alexandria, Egypt is destroyed. The 4th Wonder of the Ancient World (the 600 foot Lighthouse of Alexandria) is also destroyed. Almost 60,000 people are killed. Valentinian I. Western Emperor. Struggles with the increasing barbarian attacks in Roman Gaul, Illyricum, and Roman north Africa. 365-371 AD St. Athanasius the Great (c.293-373). Returns to his see in Alexandria, Egypt after seventeen long years of on-and-off exile. 365 AD Death of both Pope Liberius and Felix (the false Arian Pope). 366 AD Saint Damasus I (b.c.304-d.384). 37th Pope. 366-384 AD Birthplace: Rome. Since Damasus I is a Christian (anti-Arianism), he is a fierce opponent of the Arian Heresy (Arianism). The Goths invade Thrace. The Goths are defeated by the generals of Valens. 366 AD Upon the invasion of the Huns, the Ostrogoths separate from the Visigoths. Gratian, son of Valentinian I. Elected western co-emperor (367-383) at Amiens in Roman Gaul. 367 AD Theodosius the Elder (d. 376). Wars against the Picts in Roman Britain. 367-369 AD Valen’s Gothic war. 367-369 AD EasternEmperor Valens is at war with the Goths. Valens. Arian emperor of the East. Banishes all of the Christian (anti-Arian) Bishops that had returned during the reign of Julian the Apostate. 367 AD St. Athanasius the Great (c.293-373). Easter letter for the year 367. 367 AD This is the first official document which prescribes the twenty seven books of the New Testament in their present form as being alone canonical (divinely inspired). An alliance of Irish, Picts (from Scotland), and Saxons (from north Germania) overcome the defenses of Britain and begin to plunder the Roman provinces for almost two years. 367 AD The Picts, Scotti, and Saxons after reaching Roman London, plunder the city from 367 to 368. 367-368 AD General Theodosius (“Comes Britanniarum”). Is sent with a relief force to Roman Britannia in order to stop the destruction caused by the barbarians. General Theodosius successfully drives back the barbarians. 368 AD Theodosius retakes Hadrian’s Wall and restores order in Roman Britannia. General Theodosius mounts a punitive expedition into Hibernia (modern day Ireland). Note: This Theodosius is not to be confused with Theodosius the Great, the future emperor of the Roman Empire. St. Jerome. Returns to a desert in the Holy Land in order to meditate on the life and person of Jesus Christ.c. 368 AD Jerome is about 28 years old at this time. Valentinian I and his son Gratian campaign against the Alamanni. 368 AD They defeat the Alamanni at Solicinium (Schwetzingen). Death of St. Hilary of Poitiers (c.315-368). January 13, 368 AD Based on St. Jerome, St. Hilary died on January 13. However his day is observed on November 1. Baptism of St. John Chrystostom (c. 347-407). St. John Chrysostom is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. c. 369 AD St. Basil the Great (329-379). Founds, at Caesarea in Cappadocia, an institution with several buildings for schools, patients, and physicians. 369 AD A Japanese expeditionary force establishes a Japanese colony in Mimana, in what is now South Korea. 369 AD Reign of Athanaric. Prince of the West Goths. He is a fierce opponent of Christianity. 369-381 AD Athanaric, Prince of the West Goths, is defeated by the Huns and driven out from the north of the Danube River. c. 369 AD Saint Ephraem (c.306-373). Opens a hospital at Edessa. c.369 AD St. Optatus (d.c. 387). Optatus is a convert from paganism to Christianity. Writes the famous treatise “Against Parmenian the Donatist”. 370 AD He refutes the teachings of the Donatist Bishop Parmenian of Carthage. This treatise is still extant. Evagrius of Anticoh. “Vita Antonii”. Translation from Greek to Latin. 370 AD Expansion of monasticism in the west as a result of this work. Saint Basil (Basileus) the Great (329-379). Reluctantly becomes elected archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. Basil writes an obligatory rule for Greek monasticism. 370 AD Basil consequently becomes metropolitan of some fifty suffragan bishops, despite the fierce opposition of the Arian Emperor Valens. St. Basil is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. St. Ambrose (b.340-d.397). Appointed Governor of Aemilia and Liguria. 370 AD His capital is at Milan, Italy. Desolation of Phrygia by famine. 370 AD Ten thousand die. St. Peter of Sebastea (c. 340-391). Ordained a priest. 370 AD St. Ephraem (c.306-d.373) visits St. Basil the Great at Caesarea. 370 AD Death of St. Hilarion the Great (291-371). October 21, 371 AD St. Hilarion had been born of pagan parents in Gaza, Palestine. Valens (Arian emperor). Divides Caesarea into two sees. 371 AD Saint Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Despite his objections, he is consecrated Bishop of Tours. 371 AD He will remain in this position until his death in 397. Death of St. Eusebius of Vercelli (c. 283-371), at Vercelli. August 1, 371 AD Introduction of Buddhism into Korea. 372 AD Augustine. Becomes a follower of the Manichean Heresy (Manichaenism). 372 AD Augustine will be a Manichaean for nine years. Invasion of Russia by the Huns. 372 AD Destruction of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Southern Russia by the Huns that are moving westward. St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Founds the monastery at Marmoutier, called “Maius Monasterium”, (“the larger monastery”). 372 AD Saint Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). Visits Valentinian I, the emperor of the Western Roman empire. 372 AD St. Gregory Nazianzen (c.329-389). Named Bishop of Sasima in Arian territory but he never goes there. 372 AD St. Gregory Nazianzen is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. St. Gregory of Nyssa (c.330-c.395). Named Bishop of Nyssa, Lower Armenia. 372 AD Martyrdom of St. Sabas the Goth. April 12, 372 AD Interrogation of Saint Basil the Great (329-379) by Modestus the Arian prefect. 372 AD St. Athanasius the Great consecrates Peter as his successor. 373 AD Peter II. 21st Patriarch of Alexandria. 373-381 AD Death of Saint Athanasius (c.293-373) of Alexandria. May 2, 373 AD He dies at Alexandria, Egypt. Death of Saint Ephraem (c.306-373). June 9, 373 AD Death of St. Gregory Nazianzen the Elder (c. 276-374). St. Gregory Nazianzen (c.329-389) the Younger continues administering the see until a new bishop is chosen. 374 AD Death of Auxentius, Bishop of Milan, and an Arian heretic. 374 AD Milan is thrown into a turmoil as the Arians and the Christians each fight to have their candidate made bishop. Ambrose is unanimously elected bishop of Milan by all of the parties. St. Ambrose refuses to accept the position. He is forced to accept the position by the western Emperor. Baptism of Ambrose, followed by his ordination, and his consecration as Bishop of Milan (December 7). 374 AD Ambrose gives away all of his possessions. He begins a study of the Old Testament and New Testament, the great Christian writers, theology, the history of the Church, and begins to live a life of great discipline. Ambrose becomes one of the most powerful preachers of his day. He is the most formidable opponent of Arianism in the West. Ambrose will be Bishop of Milan until his death in 397. 374-397 AD Saint Jerome (c.342-420). Jerome settles at Antioch. c. 374 AD Antioch was one of the five great capital cities of the Roman Empire. These five great cities were Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Carthage, and Antioch. Sudden death of Valentinian I, ruler of the western Roman Empire. 375 AD Flavius Gratianus, his son, becomes Emperor of the West (until 383). His half-brother, Valentinian II is co-emperor in the East. Reign of Gratianus I. Ruler of the western Roman Empire. 375-383 AD He is a protege of St. Ambrose of Milan. Reign of Valentinian II, co-emperor of the East. 375-392 AD St. Basil the Great (329-379). “De Spiritu Sancto” (“On the Holy Spirit”). 375 AD The Huns from Asia cross the Volga River. 375 AD The Huns from the east succeed in entering into Europe. 375 AD The Huns overwhelm the Ostrogothic Kingdom and advance against the Visigoths (West Goths). Visigoths (West Goths). The semi-civilized Goths cross the Danube River. 375 AD Death of Hermanric, King of the Ostrogoths. Fall of the Ostrogothic Kingdom. 375 AD The semi-civilized Visigoths (West Goths) throw themselves at the mercy of the Roman Empire. 376 AD Pressed by and retreating from the savage Huns, the Visigoths implore the protection of Valens (Arian emperor of the East). Valens, the Arian eastern emperor, sympathizes with the Arian Visigoths. Valens allows them to peacefully cross the Danube River and enter into the Roman Empire. 376 AD At first, the Visigoths agree to settle in the Roman province of Moesia. They will revolt however in 378. Martyrdom of St. Bademus and his seven companions. c. 376 AD They are all tortured and martyred during the persecution of the Christians by Shapur II, King of Sassanian Persia. Gratian, the son of Valentinian I, summons his general Theodosius the Elder to replace the Arian emperor Valens as Emperor in the East. 378 AD Revolt of the Visigoths. 378 AD The Visigoths mutiny. The Visigoths are reinforced by the Ostrogoths and the Sarmatian Alans, from across the Danube River. They invade the Roman Balkan provinces. Battle of Adrianople (Hadrianopolis, in Thrace). Aug. 9, 378 AD 20,000 Visigoths and their allies meet the Arian Emperor Valens and his army in front of Adrianople. The Visigoths under Fritigern defeat the Romans due to the onslaught of the Ostrogothic and Sarmatian horsemen, led by the Alan kings, Alatheus and Saphrax. Valens, the Arian Emperor of the East, is defeated and killed fighting the Visigoths. This Roman defeat leaves Greece unprotected from the barbarian hordes. Marks the beginning of the Germanic breakthrough into the Roman Empire. Adrianople is one of the decisive battles of history. This battle marks the definite victory of the barbarian cavalry over the Roman infantry. (Adrianople, now Edirne,Turkey). St. Ursus. Builds Ravenna Cathedral. c. 378 AD Synod at Alexandria. 378 AD Condemns Apollinarianism (the Apollinarian Heresy). Pope St. Damasus I (Pope: 366-384). Holds a council at Rome which condemns Apollinarianism (based on the false teachings of the heresiarch Apollinarius). 378 AD Death of Saint Basil the Great (329-379) at Caesarea. January 1, 379 AD St. Basil is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. Synod at Antioch. 379 AD Condemns Apollinarianism (based on the teachings of Apollinarius). St. Gregory of Nyssa (c.330-c.395). Attends the Council of Antioch, which denounces the Meletian heresy. Gregory of Nyssa is sent by that council to Palestine and Arabia in order to combat the heresy that is spreading there. 379 AD St. Ambrose of Milan. Explains the errors of the Arian Heresy to Emperor Gratian I. 379 AD Ambrose persuades Emperor Gratian I to reject Arianism and accept Christianity. Gratian I. Emperor of the West. Withdraws the edict of toleration of paganism. 379 AD Implies that all forms of heathen worship must cease. St. Jerome. Proceeds to Antioch, where he allows himself to be ordained priest. 379 AD St. Jerome. Spends three years of studies of the Old Testament and the New Testament. 379-382 AD Theodosius I, the Great. Conversion from paganism to Christianity. 379 AD Theodosius, the Great. Becomes Emperor in the East. 379 AD Rules in the East 379-395. Rules in the West after 392. Death of Shapur II (b.309-d.379) of Sassanian Persia. 379 AD He is succeeded by Artaxerxes II. Artaxerxes II rules 379-383. Theodosius the Great. Roman Emperor in the East. Decrees that his subjects must be orthodox (that is, Christian). 380 AD Theodosius orders the Arian heretics either to submit or to leave the kingdom. The Arians leave. Theodosius makes apostolic Christianity, based on the anti-Arian Nicene Creed, the religion of the Roman Empire. Emperor Theodosius bans the worship of the pagan gods of Greece, Rome, Egypt, and Asia. Theodosius, Roman Emperor in the East, and Gratian, the Roman Emperor in the West, both decree apostolic Christianity (anti-Arian) to be the religion of the entire Roman Empire. 380 AD Christianity is made the official religion of the Roman Empire. St. Peter of Sebastea (c.340-391) is named bishop of Sebastea. 380 AD Council of Saragossa (Spain). 380 AD Denounces Priscillianism (the Priscillian Heresy). Among many other errors, Priscillian denied that marriage was a lawful state. Priscillian errors were brought to Spain from Egypt and contained elements of Gnosticism and Manicheanism. General Council of Constantinople (the first council held at Constantinople). Second General Ecumenical Council convenes. 381 AD Condemns the Arian Heresy (Arius). Denounces the heresy of Macedonius (Macedonianism). Macedonianism teaches that the Holy Spirit is not uncreated but created. Macedonianism applied Arian teaching to the Holy Spirit. The Council condemns Apollinarianism (Apollinarius will die in 392). The Council decides upon the ranks of the patriarchs by reaffirming first place to Rome, followed by Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch. The patriarch of Jerusalem is later given the fifth rank. St. Gregory Nyssa, St. Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315-386), and St. Peter of Sebastea (c.340-391) are among those present. St. Gregory of Nazianzus the Younger (c.329-389). Made archbishop of Constantinople (Arian dominated) at the General Council of Constantinople. 381 AD Plague and famine at Antioch, during the reign of Theodosius the Great. Two thousands perish. 381 AD St. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407). Becomes a deacon of the Church. 381 AD Chrysostom is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. Theodosius the Great. Roman Emperor in the East. Makes a compact with the West Goths (the Visigoths). 382 AD Theodosius resettles the Visigoths in the Roman Empire. Fritigern and his followers are allowed to settle in the Roman province of Moesia, south of the Danube River. Many of them will become soldiers in the Roman armies. St. Paula (347-404). Meets St. Jerome. 382 AD St. Augustine (354-430) of Hippo. Sets off on the long trip to Rome. He stays there for one year. 382 AD Gratian. Emperor in the West. Orders the removal of the statue of the pagan goddess of victory that is at Rome. 382 AD St. Jerome becomes secretary to Pope St. Damasus I. 382 AD St. Damasus I instructs Jerome to unify the Latin Bible. Roman troops in Britain rise up in revolt. 383 AD Maximus Magnus, the dux Brittaniorum, is made Roman Emperor by the troops in Roman Britannia. Saint Ambrose of Milan. Attempts to persuade Maximus Magnus, dux Brittaniorum, not to attempt to extend his domain into Italy against the new young Emperor Valentinian II (rule: 375-392). 383 AD Roman general Magnus Maximus. Crosses the English Channel, conquers Gaul and Spain, and marches against the western Emperor Gratian in Gaul. 383 AD Emperor Gratian is killed by the troops of Magnus Maximus at Lugdunum (Lyon) in Roman Gaul. 383 AD Triumphal entry of Magnus Maximus into Trèves. 383 AD Magnus Maximus, the leader of the revolt against Gratian, is recognized by Gratian’s younger brother Valentinian II and his co-emperor Theodosius. Maximus was made Emperor while in Roman Britain. 383 AD Maximus rules in Britain, Gaul, and Spain. Maximus Magnus. Roman Emperor in the West. 383-388 AD The barbarians finally overrun Hadrian’s Wall in Roman Britain. 383 AD Shapur III of Sassanian Persia. 383-388 AD St. Augustine (354-430) of Hippo. Leaves Rome and arrives in Milan in order to teach Rhetoric there. 384 AD He is not a Christian yet. He is a follower of Manicheanism (the Manichean Heresy). Death of St. Damasus I (Pope). (b.c. 304-d.384). December 11, 384 AD Saint Siricius. 38th Pope. 384-399 AD Birthplace: Rome. Siricius denounces Jovinian for rejecting the perpetual virginity of Mary. Council of Bordeaux. Called by Magnus Maximus. 384 AD Saint Ambrose of Milan. Succeeds in defeating an attempt by the pagan Quintus Aurelius Symmachus to restore the pagan cult of the goddess of victory in Rome. c.384 AD Pilgrimage of Egeria, a Gaulish nun, to the city of Jerusalem. c.384 AD Birth of Saint Patrick in Roman Britain. c. 385 AD Saint Ambrose of Milan. Successfully resists Valentinian’s order to turn over many of the Christian churches in Milan to a group headed by Valentinian’s mother, the Empress Justina, a secret Arian. 385 AD Council at Trèves. 385 AD Condemnation of Priscillian (Priscillianism), a Spanish heretic. Priscillian is executed for heresy and sortilege (divination). St. Augustine (354-430) of Hippo. “De Dialectica”. c. 385 AD (“On Dialectics”). Saint Ambrose of Milan. Refuses to obey an imperial edict that would practically prohibit Christian gatherings and forbid any opposition to turning Christian churches over to the Arians (Arian Heresy). 386 AD St. Ambrose of Milan. Discovers the bodies of two early Christian martyrs, Saint Gervasius and Saint Protasius. 386 AD Ordination of St. John Chrysostom (“golden mouthed”) (c. 347-407) by Bishop Flavian of Antioch. 386 AD St. John Chrysostom (c.347-407). “Five Sermons on the Incomprehensibility”. 386 AD Conversion of St. Augustine (354-430) during the summer of 386. He reads the “Life of Antony”. He retires to Cassiacum. 386 AD Death of St. Cyril of Jerusalem (c.315-386). March 18, 386 AD St. Jerome. Settles in a monastery in Bethlehem. 386 AD Saint Jerome. “Commentaries on the Book of Ecclesiastes”. 386 AD Written at Bethlehem. St. Augustine (354-430) of Hippo. “De Beata Vita” (“On the Blessed Life”). 386 AD “Contra Academicos”. 386 AD (“Against the Academics”). “De Ordine” (“On Order”). 386 AD (Divine Providence and the Problem of Evil). Saint Augustine. “Soliloquia”. 386-387 AD (“Soliloquies”) “Epistulae”. 386-429 AD (“Letters”). Riots in Antioch. 387 AD When the conflict between the Christians and the Arians deepens, Magnus Maximus, the usurper, invades Italy despite the pleas of St. Ambrose of Milan not to do so. 387 AD Magnus Maximus engages in battle with Valentinian II. 387 AD St. John Chrysostom. Delivers his sermons on the Statues. 387 AD Baptism of Augustine (354-430) by St. Ambrose of Milan, at Milan, on Easter Eve, 387. 387 AD St. Augustine (354-430). Writes “De Immortalitate Animae”. 387 AD (“On the Immortality of the Soul”). Theodosius I. Eastern Emperor. Partitions Armenia between Rome and Persia. c. 387 AD Death of St. Monica (the mother of St. Augustine) at Ostia. 387 AD Valentinian II and his mother the Empress Justina flee from Italy and seek the aid of Theodosius I, the Eastern Emperor. 388 AD Battle of Aquileia. 388 AD Theodosius I defeats Magnus Maximus, the usurper, at Aquileia. Theodosius has him executed in Pannonia. Theodosius I, the Great, Emperor of the Eastern Empire. Restores Valentinian II as Augustus of the Western Empire. 388 AD St. Jerome. “Questions on Genesis”. 388 AD “Commentaries on Galatians, Ephesians, Titus, Philemon”. 388 AD Both are written while Jerome is at Bethlehem. St. Augustine. Returns to north Africa, Carthage and Tagaste. 388 AD St. Augustine (354-430). “De Quantitate Animae”. 388 AD (“On the Greatness of the Soul”). “De Moribus ecclesiae Catholicae et de moribus Manichaeorum”. (“The Catholic Ways and the Manichaean Ways of Life”). 388, 389-90 AD “De Libero arbitrio voluntatis” (“On the Free Choice of the Will”). Reaffirms the Christian doctrine that man has Free Will. 388, 94-95 AD The Library at Alexandria is almost destroyed during a riot of the pagans against the Christians. 389 AD Death of St. Gregory Nazianzen (c. 329-389) at Nazianus. Jan. 25, 389 AD Gregory is one of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. Baptism of Saint Paulinus of Nola (c.354-431) by Saint Delphinus of Bordeaux (d.c.403). St. Delphinus is the second bishop of Bordeaux. 389 AD St. Augustine of Hippo. “De Musica” (“On Music”). 389 AD Saint Jerome (c. 342-420). Translates the Old Testament from Hebrew into Latin. He revises the Latin version of the New Testament. This version is called the Vulgata (Vulgate). 390-404 AD He will finish in 404 AD. St. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407). One of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. Begins preaching a series of sermons on the books of the New Testament. Includes eighty-eight on John, ninety on Matthew, and thirty-two on the Book of Romans. 390 AD St. Isaac the Great (d. 439). Appointed Katholicos of Armenia. 390 AD He at once begins to reform the Armenian Church. He is the founder of the Armenian Church. He ends the practice of married bishops, enforces canon law, encourages monasticism, builds churches, builds schools, fights Persian paganism, supports St. Mesrop in his creation of an Armenian alphabet, helps promote the translation of the Old Testament and the New Testament into the Armenian language, helps to promote the translation of the works of the Greek and Syrian doctors into Armenian, is responsible for establishing a national liturgy, and is responsible for the beginnings of Armenian literature. The statue of the pagan god Serapis at Alexandria, Egypt is broken up. 390 AD Jovinian is condemned and excommunicated by Pope Siricius. 390 AD (Jovinian Heresy). Massacre at Thessalonica. 390 AD Massacre of 7,000 people following anti-Roman rebellion at Thessalonica. Theodosius does public penance for several weeks before St. Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan. First “Hallelujah” hymns in the Roman Catholic Church. 390 AD St. Augustine. “De Vera Religione”. 390 AD (“On the True Religion”). The senatorial party at Rome presents a petition to Valentinian II for the restoration of the statue of the pagan goddess of Victory and of the vestal virgins. 391 AD This demand is resisted by the anti-pagan St. Ambrose of Milan. Theodosius I the Great. Under the influence of St. Ambrose of Milan, begins to issue strong edicts against paganism throughout the empire. 391 AD Theodosius I proclaims Christianity the official religion of the empire. All heathen cults are prohibited. Theodosius I forbids all public observances of paganism and heretical movements. Death of Maraius the Great. 391 AD He is also known as St. Macarius the Elder or St. Marius of Egypt. St. Augustine. Attends the church in Hippo and, to his amazement, he is ordained a Catholic priest. 391 AD Saint Jerome (c. 342-420). “Commentaries on the Books of the Minor Prophets”. 391-406 AD Written at Bethlehem. St. Augustine engages Fortunatus, one the leaders of Manichaeanism, in a public debate. Augustine defeats him so soundly that Fortunatus has to leave the city. August 29, 392 AD Frankish Salian and Ripuarian tribes occupy lands between the Meuse and Rhine rivers, as allies of Rome. 392 AD Murder of Valentinian II, Arian emperor of the east, at Vienne in Gaul by Arbogast, a Frankish count. 392 AD Arbogast declares the usurper Eugenius, emperor. Eugenius is the leader of the pagan revival in the Roman empire. Theodosius I. In reaction to the murder of Valentinian II, his 21 year old co-emperor, Theodosius marches against Arbogast and Eugenius of Gaul, the usurper. 392 AD Revival of paganism in Rome and the empire. 392 AD Theodosius I the Great. Forbids all public and private observances of paganism. 392 AD Theodore of Mopsuestia. Greek. Bishop of Mopsuestia. 392-428 AD Influenced Nestorius (Nestorian Heresy/Nestorianism). The Germanic leader of Rome’s Rhineland forces revolts. 392 AD Theodosius I suppresses the barbarian rebellion. Synod of Hippo. 393 AD Saint Jerome. “Adversus Jovianianum.” 393 AD St. Jerome refutes the teachings of Jovinian that Mary had other children besides Jesus (Jovinianism). Saint Paulinus of Nola (c.353-431). While Paulinus of Nola is in Spain, the Bishop of Barcelona, by demand of the people, ordains him a priest. 393 AD Last Greek Olympic Games are held. c.393 AD They are forbidden by Theodosius I because of their pagan nature. Saint Augustine. “De Fide et Symbolo”. 393 AD (“On Faith and the Creed”). Japanese invasion of Korea from Yamato, Japan. 393 AD The Japanese successfully overrun Silla and Paekche in Korea. Theodosius I, the Great, prepares to attack Eugenius of Gaul, the usurper, and the leader of the pagan revival. 394 AD Battle of the Aquileia. Sept. 5-6, 394 AD Theodosius I defeats and kills the pagan leader Eugenius. Eugenius of Gaul, the usurper, is beheaded. Suicide of Arbogast. Theodosius I. Forbids all observances of paganism. 394 AD He issues edicts forbidding sacrifice to pagan idols or for people to even enter the pagan temples. Sulpicius Severus visits St. Martin of Tours aged eighty one. 394 AD Theodosius I the Great. Accedes as Emperor of both the West and the East. 394 AD The entire empire is, for the last time, reunited under Emperor Theodosius (until his death in 395). Death of St. Macarius the Younger. 394 AD He is also known as St. Macarius of Alexandria. Saint Augustine. “Enarrationes in Psalmos.” c.394-418 AD (“Exposition on the Book of Psalms”). “De Sermone Domine in Monte.” 394 AD (“The Lord’s Sermon on the Mount”). “Letters” (Correspondence with St. Jerome). 394-418 AD Death of Theodosius the Great. Jan. 395 AD He is the last Emperor of the unified Roman Empire. Theodosius dies in the arms of Saint Ambrose of Milan. Partition of the Roman Empire. January 17, 395 AD Theodosius is succeeded by his two sons Honorius and Arcadius who divide the empire with Stilichio and Alaric as their masters and protectors. This division marks the separation of the Roman Empire into Western Roman Empire (Rome) and Eastern Roman Empire (“New Rome”) at Constantinople. Honorius (age 10) receives the Western Roman Empire and rules from the city of Rome. Arcadius (age 17) receives the Eastern Roman Empire and rules from the city of Constantinople. Reign of Honorius, Emperor in the West. 395-423 AD Reign of Arcadius, Emperor in the East. 395-408 AD Greece is under the control of the Eastern Empire. 395-1204 AD Roman Palestine is reorganized into three administrative territories. 395 AD Alaric becomes the King of the Visigoths (rules 395-d.410). 395 AD Invasion of Greece by Alaric, king of the Visigoths. Greece is ravaged by the Goths. 395-396 AD St. Ambrose of Milan. Discovers the bodies of St. Nazarius and St. Celsus in Milan. c.395 AD They were both martyrs of the first century. St. Augustine. “Confessiones”. Written. 395-400 AD (“Confessions”). Death of St. Gregory of Nyssa. 396 AD Alaric, the king of the Visigoths, plunders and takes Athens, Corinth, and Greece. 396 AD St. Porphyry (353-420). Proclaimed bishop of Gaza and entrusted with the care of the relics of the Cross of Jesus Christ. 396 AD Stilicho. Vandal general, guardian of Honorius, attacks the Picts in Britain. 396 AD St. Augustine is made Bishop of Hippo Regius in North Africa. 396 AD St. Augustine. “Contra Epistulam Manichaei quam vocant Fundamenti.” 396 AD (“Against the Epistle of Manichaeus Entitled Fundamental”). “De Agone Christiana.” 396 AD (“On the Christian Combat”). Death of St. Geminianus (Italian: Gemignano) of Modena. Exorcist. January 31, 397 AD (b.c.312-d.397). St. Augustine. “De Doctrina Christiana.” 397 AD (“On Christian Doctrine”). The first three books are published in 397. The fourth book will be added in 426. St. Augustine. “Contra Faustum Manichaeum.” 397-398 AD Reply to Faustus the Manichaean. At this point Augustine is anti-Manichaeanism. Death of St. Ambrose of Milan (on Easter Eve). April 4, 397 AD Death of St. Liborius of Le Mans. July 23, 397 AD St. Liborius is the second Bishop of Le Mans. Death of St. Martin of Tours (b.316-d.397). November 8, 397 AD He is at Candes, Touraine. Martin is succeeded by Brice as Bishop of Tours (will be bishop 397-444). Alaric, king of the Visigoths, is expelled from Greece, by Stilicho the Vandal leader of the Roman forces. 397 AD Third Council (Synod) of Carthage. 397 AD St. Jerome. “Commentaries on the Gospel of Saint Matthew”. 398 AD Written while he is at Bethlehem. St. John Chrysostom (c.347-407). One of the four Greek Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. Named Patriarch of Constantinople (398-404) against his wishes. He at once begins to reform the Church at Constantinople. 398 AD Sulpicius Severus. Completes his “Life of Saint Martin of Tours”. 398 AD Reign of Isdegerdes I (Yazdegerd) of Persia. 399-420 AD Later during his rule he will begin severe persecutions of Christians throughout Persia and Armenia. St. Maruthas (d.c. 415). Bishop of Maiferkat, Mesopotamia, near the Persian border. Petitions Emperor Arcadius to ask the newly crowned King Yezdigerd of Persia to mitigate the terrible conditions under which Christians in Persia are forced to live. 399 AD St. Maruthas is sometimes considered the father of the Syrian Church. Maruthas restores Church organization in Persia, builds many churches. He is also known for his knowledge of medicine. Compiles a record of Christians that were martyred in Persia during the persecution of the Christians during the reign of King Sapor. He brings many relics of the martyrs to Maiferkat. He composes several hymns used in the Syriac liturgy and is the author of several theological writings. Saint Augustine. “De Catechizandis Rudibus.” 399 AD (“On the Catechizing of the Uninstructed”). “Ad Catechumenos de Symbolo.” 399 AD (“To the Catechumens on the Creed”). “De Natura Boni contra Manichaeos.” 399 AD (“The Nature of the Good, Against the Manichaeans”). “De Trinitate.” 399-419 AD (“On The Trinity”). Saint Anastasius I. 39th Pope. 399-401 AD Birthplace: Rome. Condemns the Donatist Heresy (Donatism). Birth of Pulcheria (399-453). 399 AD Daughter of Emperor Arcadius, ruler of the East, and Empress Eudoxia. Martyrdom of St. Alban (a Greek from Naxos). 400 AD He is put to death in Roman Germania by the Arians. Death of St. Syncletica. 400 AD Saint Augustine. “De Fide Rerum quae non Videntur.” 400 AD (“On Faith in Things Not Seen”). “De Consensu Evangelistarum.” 400 AD (“On the Harmony of the Evangelists”). Death of St. Fabiola. c.400 AD Founded the first hospital in Roman Christendom. The word “chemistry” is used for the first time by scholars in Alexandria, for the activity of changing matter. c.400 AD Alaric. King of the Visigoths. Invades Northwestern Italy. 401 AD Saint Innocent I. 40th Pope. 401-417 AD Birthplace: Latium, Italy. Reaffirms the ancient primacy of Rome. Saint Augustine. “De Baptismo.” 401 AD (“On Baptism”). “De Opere Monachorum.” 401 AD (“On the Work of Monks”). Battle of Pollentia. April 6, 402 AD Alaric, the king of the Visigoths, undertakes an attack on Italy. Flavius Stilicho collects an army from Gaul, Britain, and Germania. Alaric is beaten back by Flavius Stilicho, the Vandal general of the Western Emperor, at the Battle of Pollenza (Pollentia), near Milan, Italy. The imperial army drove the barbarian Goths into the Alps. Thousands of Goths are killed. Honorius. Ruler of the West. Moves the capitol of the Western Roman Empire to Ravenna, Italy. 402 AD Ravenna becomes the Western capitol. Flavius Stilicho strips the western Roman frontier of forces, in an attempt to contain the Visigoth invasion of Italy. 403 AD This saves Italy but causes the Rhine frontier to begin to collapse. The Vandals, Suebi, and Alans flood across the Rhine frontier. Flavius Stilicho, the Vandal general of the Western Empire, defeats the Ostrogoths under Alaric at Verona temporarily halting their invasion. 403 AD Alaric withdraws. St. John Chrysostom (347-407). Deposed. 403 AD He is ordered exiled (404) to the Caucasus in Armenia, by Arcadius, the emperor of the East. Honorius. Ruler of the West. Celebrates the victory over the Goths by reviving the gladiatorial games. The games had been stopped by Constantine the Great, the first Christian Roman emperor, in 325. 404 AD Struck with the horror of the martyrdom of St. Telemachus (Almachius), Honorius, the Emperor of the West, issues an edict banning the games permanently. Driven by the pressure of an eastern invasion upon their forests, a vast horde of Germanic barbarians under Radagasius push into Italy. 200,000 of them are men bearing weapons of war. 404-406 AD Saint Jerome. Translates the Scriptures from Hebrew and Greek in the first Latin or Vulgate (Vulgata) edition. 404 AD Written at Bethlehem. He began in 390 and finished in 404. Battle of Fiesole. August 23, 406 AD Flavius Stilicho annihilates a barbarian (Ostrogothic) invasion under Radagaisus at a battle near Fiesole (Faesulae, Florence). This Germanic barbarian horde swarmed over the Alps. The number of Germanic barbarians is almost 100,000 men. Radagaisus is captured and killed. Gunderic (379-428). King of the Vandals. 406-428 AD The Rhine River freezes over. Dec. 31, 406 AD Across the Rhine River at various points, a vast horde of barbarians, Vandals, Suevi, and Burgundians that are headed by the Alans, swarm into Roman Gaul (406-407). It is estimated that a minimum of 20,000 Vandals alone perished in the winter crossing of the Rhine River. This great barbarian horde sweeps across Europe into north Africa leaving behind a trail of death, misery, destruction, devastation, and confusion in what had once been civilized Gaul under Roman rule. After ravaging the country from end to end, the barbarian hordes pass on into Spain. Founding of the Burgundian kingdom on the Rhine River. 406 AD Capital is Worms. St. Jerome. “Contra Vigilantium.” 406 AD Dictated in one night. St. Augustine. “De Divinatione daemonum.” 406 AD (“On the Divination of Demons”). Hearing of the chaos on the other side of the English Channel in Gaul, the Roman army in Britain, elects one of their number as the new Augustus of the West. The Usurper Flavius Claudius Constantine leads the remains of his army in Britain and enters into Gaul. The last Roman legions are gradually withdrawn from Britannia in order to protect Italy from the barbarian hordes. 407-410 AD The Romano-Britons are left to fend for themselves. The whole of the West is in chaos. 407 AD Roman generals, barbarian chieftains, and peasant insurgents fight one another indiscriminately. First Mongol Empire. Founded by the Avars (to 553). 407 AD Saint Jerome. “Commentaries on the Book of Daniel.” 407 AD Written at Bethlehem. St. John Chrysostomus (347-407). Dies at Comana, Pontus. Sept. 14, 407 AD The Franks forbid the Vandal barbarians to cross the Frankish borders and settle in their territory. 407 AD Execution of Stilicho. 408 AD Roman Emperor Honorius, ruler of the West, suspects Flavius Stilicho of plotting against him. Stilicho is beheaded. Death of Emperor Arcadius, ruler of the East. 408 AD Theodosius II (b.401-d.450). Successor to his father Arcadius, becomes Roman Emperor in the East. Rules 408-450. 408 AD Second Invasion of Italy by the Visigoths. 408 AD Alaric makes his first advance on the city of Rome. Spain. Gerontius, the Roman governor, invites the Alani, Suevi, and Vandals into Roman Spain. 409 AD The Vandals cross the Pyrenees Mountains and enter into Spain. 409 AD Saint Paulinus of Nola (c.354-431). Elected Bishop of Nola. 409 AD Alaric I, the Visigothic chieftain, appears with his army before the gates of Rome for the second time. Conquest and sack of Rome by the Visigoths, a German tribe, under Alaric. August 24, 410 AD Rome now has an enemy within its walls - the first in over 1,100 years since the founding of Rome. Incredibly the pagan Alaric spares the Christian Churches in Rome. End of Roman rule in Britain. 410 AD The Roman troops complete their withdrawal (begun in 407) from Britain and all of the British Isles. Roman troops are sent elsewhere in order to protect the Roman Empire from the invading barbarians. Alaric (d.410), the Visigothic chieftain, moves on after looting Rome. His plan is to advance on Sicily and then to North Africa. He will die however in the same year at Cosenza, Italy. Famine followed by plague in Rome, Italy. Thousands die. 410 AD Death of Alaric, the Visigoth leader at Cosenza in Southern Italy. 410 AD Alaric was on his way further south as part of his plan to cross from Italy into Sicily and then into North Africa. Alaric is buried somewhere in the bed of the Busento River near Cosenza. Alaric is succeeded by Athaulf, his brother-in-law. Ataulphus (Athaulf). King of the Visigoths. 410-415 AD Immediately upon the withdrawal of the Roman troops from Britain, begins the invasion of Britain and the British Isles by the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. c.410 AD These are Germanic tribes from continental Europe. These invasions will continue from 410 until 449. St. Jerome. “Commentaries on the Book of Isaiah.” 410 AD “Commentaries on the Book of Ezekiel.” 410-414 AD Both are written at Bethlehem. St. Augustine. “De Peccatorum meritis et remissione.” 411-412 AD (“On the Forgiveness of Sin and Baptism”). St. Augustine. Begins writing “De Civitate Dei” (“The City of God”). c.412-426 AD Written after the sack of Rome by Alaric the Visigoth in 410 AD. It will take him 14 years to complete this great work. Council at Carthage. 412 AD Condemnation of the Donatist Heresy (Donatism). Condemnation of Celestius, a follower of Pelagius (Pelagianism). Ataulphus leads the Visigoths to settle in southwestern Gaul. 412-415 AD Conquers Narbonne and Toulouse. Makes Toulouse the Visigothic capital. Isdegerdes of Persia. Conquers Armenia. 412 AD Saint Patrick (387-461). Studies at the monastery of Lérins. 412-415 AD Saint Augustine. “De Fide et Operibus.” 412-413 AD (“On Faith and Works”). “De Spiritu et Littera.” 412 AD (“On the Spirit and the Letter”). St. Cyril of Alexandria. Succeeds his uncle Theophilus as Bishop of Alexandria. Oct. 18, 412 AD Gundicar is the first king of Burgundy. 413-436 AD He will die (436) in battle against Attila the Hun. The emperor gives Gundicar (Gundahar), the first King of Burgundy, the right to form a kingdom in the Rhine region, with the capital in what is now called Worms. 413 AD Founding of the kingdom of Burgundy by Gondicar (Gundahar). 413 AD Japan establishes contact with China. 413 AD Saint Augustine. “Tractatus in Joannis Evangelium.” 414-416/417 AD (“Homilies on St. John’s Gospel”). Pulcheria (b.399-d.453), the elder sister of Theodosius II, is named by the senate “augusta” and regent (414-453) of Theodosius in the east. 414 AD Pulcheria takes a vow of virginity and devotes herself to the raising of her brother. Pelagius. British monk. Proclaims his heresy (the Pelagian Heresy or Pelagianism). c.412 AD His teachings include the denial of Original Sin and the need of Baptism. Teaches that man can achieve righteousness through his own good works. Divine grace is not necessary. St. Jerome (c.342-420). “Dialogi Contra Pelagianos”. In three books. 415 AD Denounces Pelagianism. Saint Augustine. “De Natura et Gratia.” 415 AD (“On Nature and Grace”). “De Perfectione Iustitiae Hominis.” 415-416 AD (“On Man’s Perfection in Righteousness”). “Tractatus in Epistulam Joannis ad Parthos.” 415 AD (“Homilies on St. John’s Epistle to the Parthi”). “Against the Priscillianists and the Origenists”. 415 AD The death of Hypatia at Alexandria, Egypt. 415 AD Wallia. King of the Visigoths. 415-418 AD The Visigoths invade Spain and begin wresting it from the Vandals. 415 AD Conquest of the Vandal Kingdom in Spain by the Visigoths. 416 AD Condemnation of the Pelagian Heresy by the African Bishops. 416 AD Groups of armed Pelagians burn the monasteries at Bethlehem. 416 AD St. Jerome escapes unharmed. Innocent I (Pope). Declares that pronouncements of bishops must be confirmed by the Roman See. 417 AD Death of Pope Innocent I. March 12, 417 AD Saint Zozimus (or Zosimus). 41st Pope. 417-418 AD Birthplace: Greece. Saint Augustine (354-430). “De Correctione Donatistarum.” 417 AD (“The Correction of the Donatists”). Points out the many errors of Donatism (the Donatist Heresy). Paulus Orosius. Latin theologian. “Historiarum libri VII adversus paganos.” c.417 AD (“Seven Books against the Pagans.”) A history of the world up until his own time. Death of St. Zenobius (337-417). May 25, 417 AD Zenobius was the first Bishop of Florence, Italy. Excommunication of Pelagius (Pelagianism). 418 AD Pelagius (the Pelagian Heresy) disappears from the scene after his condemnation by Pope Zozimus. May 418 AD Saint Boniface I. 42nd Pope. 418-422 AD Birthplace: Rome. Reaffirms the condemnation of Pelagius and the Pelagian Heresy (Pelagianism). Saint Augustine (354-430). “De Gratia Christi et peccato originale.” 418 AD (“The Grace of Christ, and on Original Sin”). “De Patientia.” c. 418 AD (“On Patience”). Saint Germanus of Auxerre (c.378-448). Named Bishop of Auxerre. 418 AD Franks settle in parts of Gaul. 418 AD The Goths under Athaulf (Ataulphus) settle in Aquitaine under treaty arrangements. 418 AD Theodoric I. King of the Visigoths. 418-451 AD The Visigoths establish kingdom in Spain. 418 AD The Vandals are forced out of Spain by the Visigoths. Formation of the Visigothic Kingdom of Spain (418-711). 418 AD The Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse dominates the Iberian peninsula. Christianity and Roman culture continue to spread through what is now Spain. St. Augustine (354-430). “De Anima et eius origine.” 419 AD (“On the Soul and Its Origin”). “Contra duas Epistulas Pelagianorum.” 419-420 AD (“Against Two Letters of the Pelagians”). “Questions on the Heptateuch”. 419 AD St. Jerome. “Commentaries on Jeremiah I-XXXII.” 419 AD Written at Bethlehem. Bahram V. King of Persia. 420-438 AD Death of St. Jerome (c. 342-420) at Bethlehem. Sept. 30, 420 AD John Cassian (c. 360-435). “Institutes of the Coenobia”. c.420-427 AD Bahram V, the king of Persia, angered at the destruction of a Mazdean (Zorastrian) temple, unleashes a persecution of Christians throughout the kingdom of Persia. 420 AD Persian War. 420-422 AD Persian persecution of Christians leads to a renewal of war with Rome. Persia will be defeated by the Romans. Martyrdom of St. Hormisdas. Persian. 420 AD Refuses to reject Jesus Christ at the demand of Bahram, the king of Persia. Honorius, ruler of the West, makes Constantius, his brother-in-law, Constantius III, Emperor in the West. 421 AD Constantius dies in September. Theodosius II, ruler of the East, marries Eudocia. 421 AD Theodosius II. Eastern Emperor. Sends an army to fight the Persians. 421 AD Saint Augustine (354-430). “Enchiridion ad Laurentium, seu de Fide, Spe et Caritate.” 421-422 AD (“Enchiridion on Faith, Hope, and Love”). Theodosius II makes peace with Bahram (Varahran), king of Persia. 422 AD End of the Persian War. Saint Celestine I. 43rd Pope. 422-432 AD Birthplace: Campania, Italy. Condemns the Pelagian Heresy and will be an unyielding foe of Nestorianism (the Nestorian Heresy). Saint Augustine (354-430). “De VIII Quaestionibus Dulcitii.” 422 AD (“On the Eight Questions of Dulcitius”). Enunciation of Petrine doctrine by Pope St. Celestine I. 422-432 AD St. Prosper of Aquitaine (c.390-c.465). Begins his “Chronicle.” c. 423 AD This work is a universal history from the Creation to the Vandal capture of Rome in 455. Honorius, ruler of the Western Empire, dies at his new capital at Ravenna, Italy. 423 AD Johannes attempts to make himself Roman Emperor in the West. 423 AD Troops of Theodosius II, ruler of the East, kill the usurper Johannes. 425 AD Valentinian III, nephew of Honorius, becomes Roman Emperor of the West. Reign of Valentinian III, Western Emperor. 425-455 AD Barbarian tribes settle in Roman provinces. 425 AD The Vandals settle in South Spain, the Huns in Pannonia, the Ostrogoths in Dalmatia, the Visigoths and Suevi in Portugal and North Spain. Founding of the University of Constantinople. 425 AD Saint Augustine. “De Gratia et Libero Arbitrio.” 425 AD (“On Grace and Free Will”). Reaffirms the Christian doctrine that man has Free Will. St. Augustine (354-430). Completes “the City of God”. 426 AD He began this work in 412. St. Lupus is named Bishop of Troyes. c. 426 AD John Cassian (c. 360-435). “Conferences of the Desert Fathers”. c.426-429 AD St. Augustine. “De Correptione et Gratia.” 427 AD (“On Rebuke and Grace”). “Epistola ad Firmum.” c. 427 AD (“Letter to Firmus”). Nestorius is made Patriarch of Constantinople (from 428-431). 428 AD Outbreak of Nestorianism (the Nestorian Heresy). 428 AD Nestorius begins his career of heresy by denying that the Child born of Mary was God. He declares that Jesus Christ was a mere man, conceived and born in the natural way common to man, and that God came and dwelt in Him at a later period in His life. Count Boniface summons the Vandals to north Africa. 428 AD Eudocia, the wife of Theodosius, supports Nestorius and Nestorianism. 428 AD Pulcheria, sister of Theodosius, maintains the Christian doctrine and eventually convinces Theodosius to reject Nestorius and Nestorianism. The court, convinced by the explanations of Eudocia, causes Pulcheria to be banished from the court. St. Augustine. “De Haeresibus ad Quodvultdeum”. 428 AD (“On the Heresies, to Quodvultdeus”. Genseric (Gaiseric). King of the Vandals. 428-477 AD The Salian Franks begin to take control of Northern France. c.428 AD Vandal conquest of Roman North Africa. 429 AD Pressed by the Goths, the whole Vandal Kingdom with its armies under Genseric (rule: 428-477) depart from Spain. The Vandals cross the Strait of Gibraltar. They invade and conquer North Africa. The Vandals (80,000) overrun all of the western part of the North African coast, looting, burning, and killing. Genseric establishes the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. The Vandal Kingdom in North Africa will last from 429 until 534. St. Germanus of Auxerre (c.378-448) and St. Lupus, Bishop of Troyes, are sent to Britain to combat the Pelagian Heresy (Pelagianism). 429 AD They restore orthodoxy for a while. Death of Saint Honoratus. He dies in the arms of St. Hilary of Poitiers. 429 AD St. Augustine. "Adversus Iudaeos". 429-430 AD ("In answer to the Jews"). "De Praedestinatione Sanctorum" 429 AD ("On the Predestination of the Saints"). "De Dono Perseverantiae". 429 AD ("On the Gift of Perseverance"). Continued migrations of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes from the European Continent, cross the sea, and enter into Britain. 429 AD These invasions began in 410. The Picts and the Scots are driven from southern England. 429 AD The Vandal barbarians progress along the coast of North Africa. 430 AD The Vandals besiege the episcopal city of Hippo Regius, North Africa. Death of St. Augustine (354-430). August 28, 430 AD For fourteen months the city of Hippo Regius is surrounded by the Vandal armies that cut it off from the rest of the world. St. Augustine dies in the third month of the siege at the age of seventy six. He is in full possession of his faculties to the last. St. Augustine was a defender of the Christian Doctrine against Arianism, Gnosticism, Manichaenism, Donatism, and Pelagianism. Pope Celestine I. Holds a synod at Rome. Condemns the Nestorian Heresy (Nestorianism). 430 AD Plague. Britain. 430 AD The plague leaves just enough people alive to bury the thousands of dead bodies. Armenia is divided between the Roman Empire and Persia. 431-440 AD Third Ecumenical Council. The Council of Ephesus. 431 AD Condemnation of Nestorius (Nestorianism). Final anathematization of Pelagianism. Pelagius is removed from his position as the Patriarch of Constantinople. St. Cyril of Alexandria. Presides over the Third General Council at Ephesus. 431 AD Condemns all of the tenets of the heresiarchs Nestorius (the Nestorian Heresy), Pelagius (Pelagianism), and Donatus (Donatism). St. Palladius (d.432). A deacon at Rome, he is consecrated by Pope Celestine I. 431 AD Palladius is sent to Ireland to be the first bishop of Ireland, and to begin the conversion of the people of Ireland from paganism to Christianity. St. Proclus (d.446). Named Patriarch of Constantinople. 431 AD He replaces the Heresiarch Nestorius. Proclus continues his opposition to the doctrines of Nestorius (Nestorianism). St. Mesrop (d. 441). Armenian. St. Mesrop devotes himself to the study of Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Persian, and Syriac. c. 431 AD Mesrop helps compose the Armenian alphabet, translates the New Testament into Armenian, organizes schools in Armenia and Georgia, and creates a Georgian alphabet. He founds his own school in Armenia, and continues teaching until his death at Valarshapat when he is well past eighty years old. Death of St. Paulinus of Nola (c.354-431). June 22, 431 AD Saint Patrick. Arrives in Ireland to become Bishop. 432 AD Patrick labors 30 years converting the natives of the land from paganism to Christianity (432-461 AD). St. Patrick travels the length and breadth of the island meeting fierce opposition from the Druids and hostile chieftains, whom he repeatedly overcomes. Eventually he begins the conversion of the people of the island from paganism (mostly Druidism) to Christianity. Saint Sixtus III. 44th Pope. 432-440 AD Birthplace: Rome. Reaffirms the condemnation of Pelagianism and Nestorianism. Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome. Construction begins. 432 AD Commissioned by Sixtus III. Flavius Aëtius. Becomes the virtual ruler of the Western Roman Empire. 433-454 AD Attila becomes ruler of the Huns with his brother Bleda. 433 AD Attila the Hun begins his advance westward through Europe. 433 AD Attila will rule the Huns until his death in 453. Attila, the "Scourge of God", Hun chieftain. Begins his attacks on Roman provinces. 433 AD Famine and plague throughout Italy. 434 AD Number dead is unknown. Attila the Hun enters into a treaty with Theodosius II, the Eastern Roman Emperor. 434 AD Theodosius II, Eastern Roman Emperor. Agrees to pay tribute to the barbarian Attila the Hun. 434 AD The Vandals capture Tripolitania (Western Libya). 435 AD Flavius Aëtius. Roman general. Rids Gaul of barbarians, defeating the Visigoths. 436 AD Destruction of the Burgundian Kingdom of Worms by Attila the Hun. 436 AD Gundahar, king of the Burgundians dies in battle Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum are lost by the Western Roman Empire to the Eastern Roman Empire. 437 AD Theodosian Code (Codex Theodosianus). 438 AD Theodosius II, Eastern Emperor, systemizes Roman Law for the West and the East. Will be used later in compilation of the Justinian Code. The last Roman troops leave what was once the province of Roman Britain. c. 438 AD St. Secundinus (c. 375-447). Sent from Gaul to assist Saint Patrick in Ireland. 439 AD Fall of Carthage to the Vandals. 439 AD The Vandals in north Africa under Genseric (Gaiseric) capture Carthage. The Vandals make Carthage the capital of the Vandal Kingdom. The Vandal Kingdom in North Africa becomes formally independent of the Roman Empire. 439 AD St. Leo I, the Great (d.461). 44th Pope. 440-461 AD Birthplace: Tuscany, Italy. St. Leo strenuously opposes Arianism, Manichaeanism, Pelagianism, Donatism, Nestorianism, and Priscillianism. Varanes VI rules Persia. 440-457 AD St. Germananus of Auxerre (c.378-448). Returns to Britain to combat Pelagianism (the Pelagian Heresy). c. 440 AD He is again successful, eliminating the heresy. Saxons establish settlements by the Thames estuary in England. c. 441 AD Death of St. Mesrop. Armenian. February 19, 441 AD Eudocia, the wife of Theodosius, is found guilty of infidelity to the Emperor. Eudocia is banished to Jerusalem. Pulcheria is recalled. 441 AD Attila the Hun advances into the Eastern Roman Empire. 441 AD Attila destroys the city of Naissus. 441 AD Attila the Hun, the "Scourge of God ", is in Macedonia and Thrace. 442 AD Theodosius II (b.401-d.450). Emperor of the Eastern Empire. Orders military preparedness and vigilance against an expected attack by the Huns. September 12, 443 AD Burgundian kingdom is established in Upper Rhone and Sâone. 443 AD The Alemanni settle in Alsace, France. 443 AD The Vandals under Genseric (Gaiseric) take the last Roman possessions in Northern Africa. 443 AD Genseric establishes an absolute monarchy. Death of St. Cyril of Alexandria (376-444). June 444 AD Bubonic Plague. Britain. 444 AD Number of thousands dead is unknown. Attila the Hun. Murders his own brother and co-ruler Bleda. 445 AD Attila now becomes the sole ruler of the Huns. Attila, the Hun. Rules from Hungary over Russia, Poland, and Germany. 445-453 AD Attila extorts concessions from Theodosius II. He invades the Balkans and ravages Europe to the walls of Constantinople. Roman-British inhabitants of Britain are attacked by the Anglo-Saxons. They send a plea for help to the Roman Emperor. British are forced out of their homeland and driven across the English Channel into the land of the Armoricans in northern Gaul. 446 AD Leads to the establishment of what today is called Brittany, a province of France. The Britons make a last appeal to Rome to protect them against invasion. Western Emperor tells them that they have to defend themselves. There are no Roman armies in Britain to protect them.446 AD The Huns capture Roman forts at Ratiaria and Marcianople. 446 AD Death of St. Proclus. July 24, 446 AD Galla Placida erects her famous Mausoleum at Ravenna, Italy. 446 AD Constantinople is struck by a most severe famine. Jan. 27, 447 AD Number of thousands dead is unknown. The Huns defeat the Eastern Roman army at Chersonesus, Greece. Spring 447 AD Attila the Hun attacks the Roman Empire again. 447-450 AD By this time, Attila the Hun has captured all of the Balkans from the Black Sea to the Dardanelles. 447 AD St. Flavian succeeds St. Proclus as Patriarch of Constantinople. 447 AD Merovech (Merovius). 448-457 AD Merovech will powerfully assist in the defeat of Attila the Hun. Merovech will give his name to the first line of French kings (the Merovingian Dynasty). Death of St. Germanus of Auxerre (c. 378-448) at Ravenna. July 31, 448 AD Priscus. 448 AD Accompanies an embassy to the camp of Attila the Hun. The small expedition travels by way of Nish. Priscus writes an account about his visit to the court of Attila the Hun. Eutyches of Constantinople. Presents his doctrines and is condemned. 448 AD His doctrines are called the “Eutychian Heresy” (Eutychianism). This is the Monophysitic Heresy. St. Leo the Great. Dispatches his famous Dogmatic Letter or Tome on the nature of Christ to Flavian. June 449 AD Leo I the Great. Summons a packed council at Ephesus (the "Robber Council" as Leo called it). Aug. 449 AD Theodosius II, emperor of the East, resolves to maintain its decisions despite Leo's desire to ]reopen the doctrinal question. Theodosius II. Emperor of the East. Supports Eutyches (Eutychianism) and his monophysitism. 449 AD Theodosius II approves the decrees of the Robber Synod of Ephesus. Pulcheria supports the plea of Pope St. Leo to reject the Eutychian Heresy. Expulsion of the Scots and the Picts from southern England by the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes who were originally from the European continent. 449 AD The Jutes under Hengest and Horsa invade and conquer Kent in southern England. 449 AD Completion of the invasion and conquest of Britain by the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes that had come from the continent. 449 AD Their Invasion of Britain had begun in 410 AD. Anglo-Saxon Period in Britain. 449-1066 AD Will end in the year 1066. Theodosius II, emperor of the East, is killed in a fall from his horse while he is hunting. 450 AD His sister, Pulcheria, is proclaimed Empress. Pulcheria marries Marcion, with the condition that he respect her virginity. Marcion (Marcianus) succeeds Theodosius II as Eastern Roman Emperor. Marcion marries Pulcheria, the sister of Theodosius II. 450 AD Marcianus (Marcion) rules: 450-457. Marcion agrees to reopen the problem of the doctrinal issues of the Robber Council of Ephesus of 449. Merovech (Merovius). King of the Salian Franks. 450-457 AD Founds the Merovingian Dynasty. Marcion, the Eastern Roman Emperor, and Valentinian III, the Western Roman Emperor both refuse to pay Attila the Hun the tribute that he demands. 450 AD Attila the Hun attacks Italy. 450 AD Death of St. Peter Chrysologus ("golden worded") (406-450), at Imola, Italy. July 31, 450 AD Famine. Italy. 450 AD Fourth General (Ecumenical) Council. October 8, 451 AD The Council of Chalcedon. Called by Pope Leo I the Great. The council is sponsored by Marcion (the Eastern Emperor) and Pulcheria. More than 500 Bishops are present. End of the long struggle against Monophysitism (also called Eutychianism). Monophysitism denies the humanity of Jesus Christ, holding that Christ had only one nature, the divine nature. The Monophysite Heresy is therefore condemned on the grounds that it ignores the humanity of Jesus Christ. Council condemns the Monophysite “Robber Synod” of Ephesus (449). The Council reaffirms that Jesus Christ is true God and true man at the same time (100% God and 100% man). Pulcheria attends the third session which condemns Monophysitism. The Nestorian Heresy is condemned and rejected once again. The schism of the Egyptian, Armenian, Ethiopian, and Syrian Monophysite churches stems from the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon of 451. The monophysites reject the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon. Death of the great Heresiarch Nestorius of Constantinople. 451 AD The Coptic Church in Egypt adheres to Monophysitism. The Egyptian church separates from the Roman Catholic Church. 451 AD Pope Leo I, in a letter to Pulcheria, credits her with helping to overcome the Nestorian and Eutychian heresies and for the recall of the Christian bishops who had been exiled by Theodosius II (d.450). 451 AD Attila the Hun declares war on the Western Roman Empire. 451 AD The Huns, a pagan, savage, and barbarian horde of invaders from the plains of central Asia, prepare to attack Gaul. 451 AD Attila the Hun, at this time has an army of more than 500,000 barbarians. Attila the Hun invades Gaul. 451 AD Moving through Gaul, Attila the Hun destroys the country side and massacres much of the population. 451 AD Attila the Hun lays siege to the city of Orleans. 451 AD Attila the Hun destroys the city of Metz. April 7, 451 AD St. Genevieve (c. 422-500). Prophesizes that Attila and his Huns will bypass the city of Paris. 451 AD After she leads a crusade of prayer with the citizens, the city of Paris is left unmolested by the Huns. Flavius Aëtius, commander of the armies of the Western Empire, allies himself with Theodoric I, son of Alaric, and king of the Visigoths. 451 AD Flavius Aëtius, accompanied by Theodoric I, arrives at the city of Orleans, defeats Attila the Hun, and saves the city of Orleans from destruction. Attila retires to the plain of Moirey. 451 AD Battle of Châlons. June 451 AD (This battle is also called the Battle of the Catelaunian Fields) near Châlons (Troyes). Attila the Hun is defeated by an alliance of Romans, Visigoths, Franks, and Allemani led by the Roman general Flavius Aëtius at the Battle of Châlons in Champagne. Over 250,000 men are killed on both sides in this battle. Attila the Hun flees but Aëtius does not give chase. Europe is saved from Attila the Hun, “the Scourge of God”. Theodoric I, who fell in the Battle of Châlons, is succeeded by his son Thorismond (also Thorismund). Thorismond is King of the Visigoths. 451-453 AD Attila the Hun, repulsed at the Battle of Châlons in Gaul, retreats across the Rhine River back into Hungary. 451 AD Attila now prepares to invade Italy. Attila the Hun overruns and ravages Northern Italy. 451-452 AD He burns Aquileia and Padua, and loots the city of Milan. Everywhere, Attila and the Huns leave a path of unimaginable death and destruction behind them. Attila the Hun. Announces from Milan his intention of conquering Rome itself. 452 AD Helpless to prevent the conquest by military force, the emperor abdicates his responsibility to Pope Leo I the Great. Attila the Hun advances on Rome with his huge barbarian armies. 452 AD Pope Saint Leo I the Great. 452 AD Dissuades Attila the Hun from destroying Rome in a face-to-face meeting at Peschiera. Rome is saved from the Huns. Traditional date for the founding of the city of Venice. 452 AD Venice is founded by refugees that seek refuge from the armies of Attila the Hun. Death of Attila the Hun on his wedding night. 453 AD His army breaks up. The Huns raise the siege and leave Italy. The Huns dissolve into the surrounding populations. The empire of the Huns will vanish out of history with their withdrawal from Europe in 469. Death of St. Pulcheria (399-453). July 453 AD During her life, she built many Christian churches, hospitals, and hospices. She encouraged the building of a university in Constantinople, which is where she died. Theodoric rebels against his brother and predecessor, Thorismund and has him killed. 453 AD Theodoric II, King of the Visigoths. 453-466 AD The Ostrogoths settle in Pannonia and Moesia. c. 454 AD Death of Eutyches. 454 AD Heresiarch (founder) of the Eutychian Heresy (Eutychianism). Valentinian III, Roman emperor in the West, kills Aëtius. Sept. 454 AD Valentinian III, Roman Emperor in the West, is murdered. 455 AD Petronius Maximus is emperor in the west (455 only). Sack of Rome by the Vandals. June 455 AD The Vandals come by ships to sack the city of Rome. Rome is seized, sacked, and pillaged by the Vandal barbarians under Genseric (Gaiseric). The Vandals plunder Rome for two weeks (June 2-16). The Vandals cross over into Sicily and set up a kingdom in West Sicily which will endure there until 534 AD. Avitus. Roman Emperor of the West. 455-456 AD Ricimer, leader of the Goths from Central Germany, in Roman service, is the virtual ruler of the Western Empire. 455-475 AD Ricimer. Roman general of Germanic (Suevian) origin. Defeats the Vandal barbarians. 456 AD Battle of Aylesford. 456 AD Jutish Invasion of England. The Jutes under Hengist and Horsa defeat the Britons under Vortigern. Horsa is killed in battle. Battle of Crayford. 456 AD The Jutes under Hengist defeat the Britons under Vortigern. The Britons are defeated and driven out of Kent. Hengist (Jute). Founds the kingdom of Kent in England. 456 AD The Britons are defeated and driven out of Kent, England. 456 AD They settle in Bretagne. Majorian. Emperor in the West. 456-461 AD St. Sabbas (439-532). 456 AD Goes to Jerusalem and there enters a monastery under St. Theoctistus. Leo I. Eastern Roman Emperor. 457-474 AD Childeric conquers to the Loire River, including Paris. 457 AD Childeric I is King of the Salian Franks. 457-481 AD Saint Remigus (also known as Remi, c.437-530). Appointed Bishop of Rheims. Remi is only twenty two years old. 459 AD Death of St. Simeon Stylites the Elder (c.388-459). Sept. 2, 459 AD Capture of Cologne by the Franks. 460 AD Destruction of the Roman fleet off Cartagena by the Vandals. 460 AD Death of Pope Leo I, the Great. November 10, 461 AD Saint Hilary (or St. Hilarius). 47th Pope. 461-468 AD Birthplace: Sardinia. Election of a Monophysite (Monophysitism) to the eastern patriarchate of Antioch. 461 AD Livius Severus. Western Roman Emperor. 461-465 AD Death of St. Patrick of Ireland. March 17, 461 AD During his 30 years in Ireland, he raised the standards of education, encouraged the study of Latin, and began the conversion of the Irish people from paganism to Christianity. The Burgundians, a Germanic tribe, make Lyon their capital. 461 AD Founding of the famous Studios Monastery. 463 AD Council at Rome. 465 AD Disastrous fire in Constantinople. 465 AD Death of St. Prosper of Reggio. June 25, 466 AD He ruled as the bishop of Reggio in the province of Emilia, Italy for 22 years. Leo I, Eastern Emperor, has Anthemius, elected Emperor of the West. 467 AD Anthemius. Western Roman Emperor. 467-472 AD Leo I, the emperor of the East, and Anthemius, the emperor of the West, assemble a fleet of over 1000 ships in order to attack the Vandal kingdom in North Africa. 467 AD The Huns invade Dacia. 466 AD Leo I, Emperor of the Eastern Empire, beats them off with the aid of generals Anagastus and Anthemius. Euric the Visigoth. Murders his brother Theodoric II, King of the Visigoths (453-466). Euric becomes the King of the Visigoths (rules 466-484). 466 AD Conquest of Spain by the Visigoths. 466 AD Reign of Euric, who established the Visigothic kingdom in Spain. The Visigothic kingdom extends from the Loire River to Southern Spain. Famine. England. 466 AD Number of thousands dead is unknown. Saint Simplicius. 48th Pope. 468-483 AD Birthplace: Latium, Italy. He re-affirms the condemnation of the Monophysite Heresy (Monophysitism). Flood. Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Empire. 469 AD Four days of continuous rain flood the city. Uncounted hundreds are killed. The East Romans under Basiliscus attack the Vandals in Africa. 468 AD Genseric (Gaiseric) defeats them off Cape Bon (in modern Tunisia). Leo I, Emperor of the East. Fends off another invasion of Dacia by the Huns. 468 AD Codex Euricanus. 470 AD Composition of the oldest Germanic code of law. It is written in Latin under the direction of Euric, King of the Visigoths. By this time, the White Huns have almost completely destroyed the Gupta Empire in India. Disintegration of the Gupta Kingdom. c.470 AD The White Huns dominate northern India. Death of Dengizik, the Hunnic king (Attila’s second son). 469 AD Withdrawal of the Huns from Europe. 469 AD The Huns vanish from history. Their disappearance is not mourned. Raid of Epthalites into India. 470 AD First detailed records of Japanese history. 470 AD Theodoric the Great (d.526). Becomes king of the Ostrogoths. Theodoric rules 471-526. 471 AD He will become king of all of Italy in 493. The Goths attack the approaches to Constantinople. The attack is called off as Zeno, Leo’s son-in-law, has Ardaburius, the leader of the Goths killed. 471 AD Anthemius, Western Emperor, is killed by Ricimer, the barbarian general. Ricimer appoints Olybrius. 472 AD Olybrius. Western Roman Emperor. 472 AD Ricimer dies. Gundobad, the Burgundian, takes control of the army of the Western Empire. 472 AD Olybrius dies. Western Empire is left without an emperor. 472 AD Much of Europe is covered with ash from the Vesuvius volcano. 472 AD Death of Saint Euthymius the Great (c.378-473). January 20, 473 AD Gundobad, the Burgundian, names Glycerius as the Western Roman Emperor. 473 AD Glycerius. Western Roman Emperor (473-474 AD). At the instigation of Leo I, the ruler of the East, Julius Nepos marches on Rome. 474 AD Julius Nepos removes Glycerius, and makes himself Emperor of the West. Julius Nepos. Western Roman Emperor (474-475 AD). Leo I of the Eastern Empire dies. Leo I is succeeded by Zeno. 474 AD Reign of Zeno. Eastern Roman Emperor. 474-491 AD Orestes, Roman commander, expels Julius Nepos, the western emperor, and names his son, Romulus Augustulus, Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. 475 AD Reign of Romulus Augustulus. 475-476 AD Romulus Augustulus is the last Roman Emperor of the West. Euric, leader of the Visigoths, declares independence. 475 AD Writings of Dionysius Areopagita. 475-525 AD The northern end of Europe is visited by a plague of locusts. 475 AD Crops are destroyed. Famine follows. Number of thousands of deaths is unknown. Proclus (c.410-485). Neo-Platonist philosopher. Becomes head of the Platonic Academy at Athens. 476 AD Battle of Pavia. August 476 AD Odoacer, Germanic chieftain, defeats the forces defending the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, at Pavia, in northern Italy. Zeno, the Eastern Roman Emperor, is forced to abdicate by Basiliscus. Basiliscus takes the eastern throne (Jan. 9, 475-August 476). 476 AD Basiliscus, a Monophysite pretender, usurps the East Roman throne. He deposes Zeno the Isaurian. Zeno, however, will be restored in 477. Basiliscus, the Pretender, is supported by the Monophysites, who had rejected the Council of Chalcedon (451). The Monophysites, of course, recall all of the monophysite bishops. In August 476, Zeno besieges Constantinople. Aug. 476 AD Basiliscus, the usurper, flees into the Hagia Sophia. Basiliscus, surrenders after extracting a promise from Zeno that he will not shed his blood. Basiliscus is sent to Cappadocia, where Zeno orders that he be enclosed in a dry cistern. He will die there from exposure. Genseric, the Vandal, concludes a treaty with Zeno, the Eastern Emperor. Zeno recognizes Vandal rule over all of western Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands. 476 AD Fall of the Roman Empire. Sept. 4, 476 AD This is the traditional date of the fall of the Roman Empire. Odoacer (433-493), Germanic leader of the Herulii and Rugii, deposes Romulus Augustulus and is the first “barbarian” ruler of Italy. Odoacer founds the Kingdom of Italy. With the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman Emperor of the west, by Odoacer, the Western Roman Empire ceases to exist. Odoacer informs Constantinople that there is no emperor in the West. Odoacer is recognized as the head of the Western Empire by Zeno, the emperor of the Eastern Empire. Previously under Roman rule, the Eastern Empire continues to survive. This event marks the start of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire will continue from 476 until it is finally destroyed by the moslems in the year 1453. The Byzantine Empire survives for 977 years until 1453. Genseric (Gaiseric), the King of the Vandals, cedes Sicily, with the exception of the city of Lilybaeum, to Odoacer, the Germanic chieftain, that has deposed the last Roman Emperor of the West. 476 AD This is in exchange for an annual tribute to Odoacer.

The Duke of Medina Sidonia (1550-1615) sails from Lisbon, Portugal in command of the Spanish Armada. 1588 The Defeat of the Spanish Armada. July 21-29, 1588 War between Spain and England. The Spanish Armada (132 ships, 33,000 men and crew) which was sent by Philip II of Spain against England is destroyed, while in the English Channel, by English attacks and storms. The Spanish fleet is led by Duke Medina Sidonia. Spaniards are defeated by English fleet led by Adm. Charles Howard of Effingham (1536-1624) with Sir Francis Drake, Sir John Hawkins, and Martin Frobisher. 6,000-10,000 men are killed. Marks the beginning of Spain’s decline as a naval power. War between Spain and England resulted primarily from England’s support for the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain. Disappearance of the second English colony on Roanoke Island. 1588 Known as the “Lost Colony”. Famine in Ireland. 1588-1589 Thousands perish. Death of Frederick II of Denmark. 1588 He is succeeded by Christian IV. Rules 1588-1648. Christian IV will later support Lutheranism. Henry of Guise marches on Paris in order to depose Henry III of France. 1588 Henry III flees to Blois (May). Henri of Guise is killed at orders of Henry III of France. Dec. 1588 Henry III, King of France, turns to Henry of Navarre for support. 1588

Founding of the kingdom of Sussex. 477 Genseric (or Gaiseric), king of the Vandals, dies. 477 Huneric. Vandal King of North Africa. 477-484 Fierce persecutions of Christians by Hunneric, the king of the Vandals, the son and successor of Gaiseric (Genseric). 477-484 Zeno retakes the Eastern throne from Basiliscus. 477 Z eno recovers the East Roman throne aided by Theodoric the Great, the Ostrogoth ruler. The Vandal Kingdom is at its greatest extent. 477 It includes Corsica and Sardinia. First Shinto shrines appear in Japan. c. 478 Birth of St. Benedict (480-547) in the city of Nursia located in the Sabine hills near Rome. 480 Birth of Boethius (c.473-524), Roman philosopher. 480 Birth of Cassiodorus. 480 Bodhidharma. Twenty eighth Patriarch of Indian Buddhism. ca.480-528 The Burgundy area of France is invaded by the Burgundii, from Savoy. 480 Death of Childeric I, the King of the Salian Franks. He is succeeded by his fifteen year old son Clovis (c.465-511). 481 The Salian Franks were about half of the Franks. Clovis rules as the King of the Salian Franks. 481-511 Clovis will rule until his death in 511. Reign of Clovis I (Chlodwig). 481-511 Clovis, the son of Childeric I, is the first king of the Franks and founder of the Merovingian Dynasty. Clovis establishes the kingdom of Franks in northern France and southern Germany with its capital at Paris. Clovis is considered the true founder of the French monarchy (France). Clovis and the Franks begin the conquest of Gaul. 481 Schism between Rome and Constantinople. 481 Zeno, Byzantine Emperor, publishes the “Henoticon,” or edict for reunion. Zeno implicitly condones Monophysitism. Published by Zeno in an attempt to end the turmoil associated with the Monophysite Heresy. The suggestion however was, that the fathers at Chalcedon had erred. The Monophysite patriarch of Alexandria and also the patriarch of Constantinople regarded the Henotikon as permission to openly repudiate the Council of Chalcedon, and the “Tome” of Pope Leo I, which had been accepted by the Council (451). Pope Simplicius. After the sending of two embassies, excommunicates the patriarch of Constantinople, the patriarch of Alexandria, and the Emperor Zeno himself. 481 They are supporters of Monophysitism (the Monophysitic Heresy). Schism between the Roman Church and Constantinople. 481 Continues until the accession of Emperor Justin in 518. Revolt of Vahan Mamikomian. 481-484 Secures the religious and political freedom of Armenia. Edict of toleration is granted to Christians. The Bulgarians (related to the Huns) settle northeast of the Danube River. 482 Death of Pope Simplicius. Succeeded by Saint Felix II. 49th Pope. 483-492 Birthplace: Rome. Saint Brigid of Ireland (c.450-525). Founds monastery at Cill-Dara (Kildare) and is abbess of the convent, the first in Ireland. c.483 The Nestorian Church (Nestorianism) breaks away from the Catholic (Christian) Church. 483 Basilica of S. Stefano Rotondo, Rome. Construction begins. 483 Acacian Schism. 484 Excommunication of Acacius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, by Pope Felix II. Part of the first schism between the Western Church and Constantinople. The church at Constantinople will finally permanently split from the Catholic Church in the year 1054. Acacian Schism. 484-519 Beginning of the Acacian Schism (484-519) between the Western Church and Constantinople. Death of Hunneric, king of the Vandals. 484 He is succeeded by his nephew Gunthamund who rules as the Vandal King of North Africa 484-496. Alaric II is King of the Visigoths. 484-507 Overthrow of the Gupta empire in northern India by Epthalite invaders from beyond the Oxus River. c.484 Drought causes great famine in Africa. 484 Thousands perish. Death of Saint Calogerus. Exorcist. June 18, 486 Italian: Calogero. Battle of Soissons. 486 The Franks conquer Gaul. Clovis I, King of Franks, crushes the Romans under Syagrius, the last Roman governor of Gaul, at Soissons. End of the last remnant of Roman rule in Gaul (what is now France). Merovingian Dynasty in Gaul. 486-751 Clovis (Clodovech) is King of all the Franks. 486-511 Hui-k’e (Hui-k’o). Chinese Ch’an Buddhism. 486-593 Successor of Bodhidharma. The Second Patriarch of Ch’an in China. Originally named Shen-kuang until told to change his name to Hui-k’e by Bodhidharma. Beginning of the conquest of Italy by Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths.Theodoric King 487-493. Theodoric invades Italy at the instigation of Zeno, the Byzantine Emperor. 487 Destruction of the school of the Nestorians (Nestorianism) at Edessa by Zeno the Eastern Roman Emperor. 489 Zeno builds the Church of St. Simeon Stylites around the actual pillar of St. Simeon Stylites (c.390-459). Defeat of Odoacer by Theodoric the Ostrogoth, on the Isonzo River near Aquileia, at Verona, and again at the River Addua, ten miles from Milan. The Ostrogoths begin their conquest of Italy. 489 Theodoric the Ostrogoth establishes the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy. 489 Rules 489-526. Ostrogothic rule in Italy. 489-555 Siege of Ravenna. 490 Theodoric the Ostrogoth lays siege (to 493) to the city of Ravenna, Odovacer’s capital city. Dracontius of Carthage. “De Laudibus Dei.” 490 2,327 hexameters written in three books. Capture of Pevensey, Sussex by the Saxons. 491 Death of Zeno, Byzantine Emperor. 491 Reign of Anastasius I, Byzantine (East Roman) Emperor. 491-518 Anastasius I is a Monophysite (Monophysitism). Gondebald. King of Burgundy. 491-516 Rejection by the Armenian church of the Council of Chalcedon (451). The Armenian church secedes from the Roman Catholic Church. 491 The Armenian church maintains its Monophysitic position (Monophysitism). Saint Gelasius I. 50th Pope. 492-496 Birthplace: Rome. Reaffirms the claims pertaining to the authority of Rome over all of the Catholic churches in the West or in the East. Theodoric, the Arian king of the Ostrogoths, seizes Ravenna (after a three year siege). 493 He treacherously murders Odoacer at a banquet. Theodoric establishes the Ostrogothic kingdom (East Gothic) in Italy. Theodoric, the Arian King of all Italy, marries a sister of Clovis, King of the Franks, and becomes the King of Rome. Theodoric makes all of Italy an Ostrogothic kingdom. Theodoric attempts to rule largely in the Roman tradition. He is nominally subject to Constantinople. Theodoric makes the city of Ravenna his residence. Theodoric, the Arian king of the Ostrogoths, rules Italy. 493-526 Kingdom of the Ostrogoths (East Goths) in Italy. 493-555 Appearance of Michael the Archangel in a cave of the Gargano mountains in Apulia, Italy. May 8, 492 A city arises around it known as Monte Sant’ Angelo. Marriage of Clovis I, the pagan King of the Franks, to the Burgundian Christian princess Clothilda (St. Clotilda), c.474-June 3, 545. 493 Pope St. Gelasius I. Declares in a letter to the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I that the pope has power and authority over the emperor in spiritual matters. 494 Pope Gelasius I denies the right of the state to interfere in the affairs of the Roman Catholic Church. Earthquake. Asia Minor. 494 Destruction of Laodicea, Hierapolis, and Tripoli. Thousands are killed. Battle of Tolbiacum (Tolbiac). 496 Clovis, King of the Salian Franks, defeats the savage Alamanni tribe swarming across the Rhine River. Clovis becomes king of the Ripuarian Franks, thus uniting all of the Franks. Conversion of Clovis. 496 Conversion of Clovis I, King of the Frankish Kingdom, from paganism to Christianity, during the Battle of Tolbiac, when the invading Alemanni are on the verge of defeating his forces. The tide of the battle turned and Clovis is victorious. Baptism of the Merovingian King Clovis I (with 3,000 of his men) at Reims by St. Remigius (St. Remi), Bishop of Rheims (on Christmas Day). Clovis is a staunch opponent of Arianism (the Arian Heresy). Dec. 25, 496 Beginning of the conversion of all of the Franks from paganism to Christianity. 496 Thrasamund. Vandal King of North Africa. 496-523 Death of Pope Gelasius I. 496 He is succeeded by Anastasius II (Pope: 496-498). The Gelasian Missal. 496 Book of prayers, chants, songs and instructions for the celebration of the Catholic Mass. Anastasius I. Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Quells a serious revolt in Isauria in Asia Minor. 497 Nestorians (Nestorianism) settle in Nisibis, Persia. 498 Saint Symmacus (St. Symmachus). Pope. 498-514 Birthplace: Sardinia. Fabius Claudius Gordianus Fulgentius, or St. Fulgentius (468-533). Tortured by the Arian heretics (Arianism). 499 Synod of Rome. 499 Issues first decree on papal election. St. Vedastus (Vedast), d.539. Sent by Bishop Remigius to become Bishop of Arras. 499 Sixth Century Golden age of Irish Christian monastic scholarship begins. c.500 Completion of the Jewish Babylonian Talmud. c.500 An Influential Neoplatonic treatise is written by the so-called Pseudo-Dionysus. ca.500 Codex Bezae. 500 New Testament in Greek and Latin. Arabs invade Palestine. ca.500 Fire destroys the library at Alexandria, Egypt. 500 Clovis attacks the Burgundians (Arians/Arianism). Clovis defeats the Burgundian King Gondebald. 500 Clovis attacks but does not conquer Burgundy. Invasion of Bavaria by the Marcomanni, a barbarian Germanic tribe from Bohemia. 500 Occupation of the area north of the Danube River by the Lombards (also called Langobards). 500 Saxons establish the kingdom of Wessex in southern England. c.500 Basilica of Turmanin and Kalb-Luzch, Syria. c.500 Church of St. John. Ephesus, Asia Minor. c.500 Destroyed. Siege of Amida. 502 The Persians sack the city of Amida in Mesopotamia in a struggle against the forces of the Byzantine Empire. Kavadh I, the Sassanid ruler of Persia, kills thousands of the defenders. Anastasius I. Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Wages a long war against the Persians. 502-506 Wu-Ti. Emperor of China. 502-549 Battle of Mons Badonicus (Mount Badon). Arthur, war leader of the Britons, defeats the Saxon forces at Mount Badon, in Dorset, England. 503 Caesarius of Arles (470-543). Elected against his wishes as Bishop of Arles. 503 Alaric II, King of the Visigoths (Arian). Issues the “Lex Romana Visigothorum”, law code, based on the ancient Roman Law. 506 Burgundy is tributary to the Franks. 506 Battle of Campus Vogladensis (Vouillé, in southern France). 507 Clovis (now Christian), King of the Franks, is intent on driving the Visigoths (Arian) out of France. Clovis seeks out the Visigoth army which is under Alaric II. With their deadly axes, the Franks crush the Visigoths. Clovis meets Alaric II (son of Euric) in single combat and kills him. The Visigoths abandon Toulouse, their capital, and retreat into Spain. Clovis annexes the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse. Bulgars, Huns, and Slavs invade the Byzantine (Eastern) Empire. 507-512 Clovis conquers the Visigothic kingdom as far as the Pyrenees with the aid of the Burgundians. 507 Clovis conquers the Visigothic kingdom of Old Castile (to 711). Anastasia Wall. 507 Walls are built in Constantinople for protection from the barbarians. Will be completed in 512. Capital of the West Gothic kingdom is moved to Toledo (to 711). 507 The Lombards, a Germanic tribe, crush the Heruli from Scandinavia. 508 The Italian Ostrogoths under Theodoric drive the Franks out of Provence (southeastern France). 508 They will control it until 563. The Ostrogoths recover Septimania (later will be called Languedoc) from the Visigoths. Amalric. King of Visigoths. 508-531 Clovis, King of the Franks. Establishes his capital at Lutetia (now called Paris). 508 Clovis has built there a church dedicated to the Twelve Holy Apostles. Convent at St. Césaire, Arles. 511 Saint Sabbas (439-532). Sent as one of a delegation of abbots to Emperor Anastasius I, a supporter of Eutychianism, which the Catholic Church and Sabbas oppose. 511 Sabbas pleads with the Emperor to stop his persecution of Catholic bishops and religious. Saint Sabbas is unsuccessful. Council of Orléans. Clovis, King of the Franks, presides over a church council at Orléans. 511 Eugippius. “The Life of Saint Severinus.” Written. 511 The death of Clovis, King of the Franks. 511 Partition of the Frankish kingdom between the four sons of Clovis: Theodoric I (to 534) at Soissons. Chlodomer (to 524) at Paris. Childebert I (to 558) at Metz (succeeds his father Clovis). and Chlothar I (to 561) at Orléans. Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I. Completes the continuation of the Anastasian Wall from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara to keep out the barbarians. 512 Death of St. Genevieve (c.422-500). 512 She is eighty nine years old. Bosra Cathedral. Syria. 513 Muchtertach, chief of king of Ireland reigns. 513-533 Converts from Irish paganism to Christianity. The Persians crush the White Huns. 513 Anicius Manlius Servinus Boëthius. “De Institutione Musica.” c.513 His writings on music. St. Hormisdas. Pope. 514-523 During his papacy will be the end of the Acacian Schism (519). This schism had divided the Western Church and Constantinople since 484. Conflict between Anastasius I, Byzantine Emperor, and the pretender Vitalian, commander of the Bulgarian foederati. 514-518 Famine in England. 515 Described as “most afflictive.” Unknown number of thousands perish. Gundobad, King of Burgundy, dies. He is succeeded by his son Sigismund (Sigmund). Rules 516-524. 516 Sigismund works to convert his people from Arianism to Christianity. Sigismund will later be proclaimed a saint of the Church. Arthur, Celtic King of Britain. Resists Saxon invaders for twenty years. 516-537 Wu Ti, the Emperor of China, becomes a Buddhist and introduces the new religion to Central China. 517 Death of Anastasius I (Monophysite ruler of the Byzantine Empire). Reign of Justinus I (Illyrian), Byzantine Emperor. 518-527 The accession of Justin marks the downfall of the Monophysite heresy. On his accession, he solemnly reaffirms the Anti-Monophysite decisions of the Council of Chalcedon that had been held in 451. End of the Acacian Schism (484-519). Permanent separation of the Monophysites from Roman Catholicism. End of the Acacian Schism (484-519) that broke out in 484. 519 Temporary reconciliation of the Western Church and Constantinople. St. Hormisdas (Pope). Formal end of first schism (484-519) between Rome and Constantinople. Eastern and western churches are temporarily reconciled. The Church in Constantinople is temporarily reunited to the Catholic Church as a result of the “Formula of St. Hormisdas”. 519 Founding of the kingdom of Wessex (West Saxons). 519 Will ultimately unite to itself the entire English monarchy. Cassiodorus. “Chronica”. 519 A history of the world up to the year 519. Christian monasteries and academies continue to flourish throughout Ireland, as a center for education, translation, scholarly activity, study, teaching, and missionary training. 520 Founding of Clonard Monastery in Ireland. 520 Will be a source of future missions from Ireland into much of Europe. Priscian. “Institutiones Grammaticae.” 18 volumes. 520 A systematic Latin grammar. Famine. Venice, Italy. 520 Thousands perish. Amalaric, the first Gothic king who establishes his court in Spain. 522-531 Capital is Seville. The oldest known pagoda from the Sung Yuen temple of Honan, China. A towerlike structure, derived from the stupa of ancient India. 522 Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius (c.480-524), a Roman scholar, philosopher, and theologian, is imprisoned. “De Consolatione Philosophia.” 523-524 He writes his “Consolation of Philosophy,” while he is in prison. Death of Thrasamund, king of the Vandals. 523 He is succeeded by Hilderic. Hilderic. Vandal King of North Africa. 523-530 Saint John I. Pope. 523-526 Birthplace: Tuscany. Sigismund, King of Burgundy, is killed by Chlodomer, son of Clovis I. 524 He is succeeded by Godomar. Godomar II is the last king of Burgundy. Execution of Boëthius (c.480-524) is ordered by Theodoric, the Arian (Arianism) heretic. 524 Persia is again at war with the Byzantine Empire (524 to 531). 524 Saint Deiniol (English: Daniel) of Wales (d.572). Founds the Abbey of Bangor, Caernarvonshire, Wales. c.525 This is not to be confused with the Bangor Abbey which will later be founded by St. Comgall in 558. Death of Saint Brigid of Ireland (c.450-525). February 1, 525 Invasion and conquest of Yemen by Caleb of Abyssinia (Ethiopia). 525 Cosmas Indicopleustes. Alexandrian Greek explorer and geographer. Travels up the Nile River. c.525 Writes his “Topographia Christianae.” St. Nicetius (also called Nizier). Bishop of Trier. c.525-c.565 Pope John I is thrown in prison by Theodoric, the Arian King of the Ostrogoths. 526 John will die shortly after. Saint Felix III. Pope. 526-530 Birthplace: Rome. Death of Theodoric, Arian King of the Ostrogoths. 526 Theodoric was king of the Ostrogoths, ruler of Italy, and an Arian heretic. His daughter Amalaswintha becomes regent of Italy (526-534) for her ten year old son Athalaric. The Tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna, Italy. 526 A mausoleum built for the Arian Ostrogothic king. Cassiodorus. “The History of the Goths.” 526-533 The Church of San Vitale. Ravenna, Italy. 526-547 The city of Antioch, Syria is buried with all of its inhabitants by an earthquake. 250,000 are killed. May 26, 526 Rebuilding of the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem. 527-565 Constantine’s church that was built on the original site of the birth of Jesus Christ is rebuilt. Justinian (b.483-d.565). Succeeds his uncle Justinus (Justin) as Emperor of the Byzantine Empire at Constantinople. 527 Justinian I (483-565), the Great, Byzantine Emperor. 527-565 Under Justinian I, the Great, the Byzantine Empire reaches its height. Justinian I rebuilds the Byzantine Empire against the influence of paganism. Justinian I. Byzantine Emperor. Sends forces led by generals Belisarius and Narsus in order to drive the Goths out of Italy. 527 The Church of St. Sergius and St. Bachus in Constantinople. 527 Founded by Justinian I the Great. First Persian War of Justinian I. 527-532 Justinian I, the Great, issues laws for the punishment of heretics. 527-528 For the heretics, said Justinian “to exist is sufficient.” During his reign, he sends Christian missions against the Monophysites in Asia Minor. Justinian closes the yet remaining pagan sanctuaries of Isis at Philae and Ammon at Augila. Throughout his reign Justinian I viewed as heretics, the Arians, Manichaeans, Gnostics, Nestorians, Jews, Donatists, Montanists, and Monophysites. Saxon kingdoms of Essex and Middlesex. 527 Battle of Daras (Dara). 528 Belisarius (age 23), Justinian’s commander, leads imperial forces to victory over the Persians. St. Benedict of Nursia (480-543). Italian. Founds the Order of Benedictine Monks (the Benedictine Order). 529 St. Benedict of Nursia founds the Monastery of Monte Cassino in Subiaco, Italy (near Naples), the first Benedictine monastery. Monte Casino becomes the center of Western monasticism. This is the same year in which the Academy and Lyceum are closed in Athens. Belisarius (505-565). Becomes general of the Byzantine armies of Justinian I, the Great. 529 Belisarius was probably the greatest general of the Byzantine Empire. Belisarius (505-565) takes Naples. 529 Ratisbon becomes the capital of Bavaria. 529 Justinian the Great. Orders the building of Santa Sophia in Constantinople. 529 Justinian I. Byzantine Emperor. Issues the Justinian Code (“Corpus Juris Civilis” or “Codex Justinianus”). 529-534 This is a comprehensive code based on Roman Law. His legal code becomes the basic Roman Law that will be used later as a model for the nations of Europe. This is the first code of civil law. It is not completed however until 565. His code is written in Latin, for Byzantium was still Latin speaking. Consists of three volumes or sets of writings: the “Digests,” the “Corpus,” and the “Institutes” including an appendix. Justinian I, the Great, closes the pagan schools of philosophy. 529 Closes the Academy and the Lyceum at Athens, which had existed for nearly a thousand years. Justinian’s action is directed against paganism and not on Greek science, education, and knowledge. Second Council of Orange. 529 Condemns Pelagianism (the Pelagian Heresy) and Semi-Pelagianism. Death of Saint Remigius (c.437-530) at Rheims. January 13, 530 Pope Boniface II. 530-532 Death of Hilderic, king of the Vandals. 530 Gelimer (nephew of Gunthamund and Thrasamund) becomes king of the Vandals in North Africa. Gelimer is the last King of the Vandals (Arians). Gelimer rules 530-534. Theudes. King of the Visigoths. 531-554 Construction begins on the Santa Sophia Basilica (Hagia Sophia) in Constantinople under Justinian (finished 537). 531 Built by the Greek architects Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. The Hagia Sophia will be completely built in six years and dedicated on Christmas Day of 537. The Hagia Sophia will later be turned by the Mohammedans into a mosque (1453) when the Byzantine Empire and the city of Constantinople is destroyed. Anushirwan (Chosroes I) becomes Persian Emperor. 531 Reign of Khosru I (or Chosroes) king of Persia. 531-579 Chosroes I fought the Byzantine Empire and overthrew the Abyssinian control of Yemen. Battle of Callinicum. 531 Byzantine army under Belisarius (505-565) is defeated by the Persians under Chosroes I (Kavadh), the Sassanian ruler of Persia. Overthrow and conquest of the Kingdom of Thuringia by the Franks. 531 Belisarius (505-565). Byzantine general. Recalled to Constantinople by Justinian I. 531 Pope John II. 532-535 Succeeds Pope Boniface II (d.532). The Basilica Cistern in Constantinople. 532 Designed possibly by Anthemius of Tralles for Justinian I. It is the largest of the city’s underground cisterns for storing water. Death of St. Sabbas (439-532). December 5, 532 Nika Revolt against Justinian. 532 Belisarius crushes the Nika Rebellion in the Hippodrome of Constantinople. Restores calm, and saves the throne of Justinian. 30,000 rioters are killed. Destruction of Constantinople during the Nika revolt. It is soon rebuilt. They rebelled against taxes. Named for the rebels’ cry “Nika!” (victory). Cerdic. First king of the West Saxons, accedes to the throne of Wessex. 532 Justinian I signs peace treaty with Chosroe, the Sassanian ruler of Persia. Chosroe will break the treaty however in 540. 532 First Persian War of Justinian I is ended in order to free the imperial armies for operations in the west. Justinian I. Byzantine Emperor. Sends an army under general Belisarius to attack the Vandals (Arian) that are in North Africa. 533 A great attack is launched by the Byzantines under general Belisarius (505-565), on the kingdom of the Vandals (Arians) in North Africa. 533 Wars of Justinian I against the Vandals (Arians) in North Africa. 533-534 Conquest of the Vandal (Arian) Kingdom of North Africa by the great Byzantine general Belisarius. Belisarius makes North Africa a province (534) of the Byzantine Empire. Gelimer is the last King of the Vandals. Justinian I. Byzantine Emperor. The Digest or Pandects is issued. 533 This is the second part of the Corpus Iuris Civilis (Body of Civil Law). The Institutes, the third part of the Corpus Iuris Civilis, comes into force of law. Conquest of the kingdom of Burgundy by the Merovingians (Franks). 534 The island of Malta becomes a province of the Byzantine Empire. 534 Until 870. Belisarius occupies the former Vandal (Arian) capital of Carthage. 534 Johannes Philoponus Grammaticus (c.485-555). Refutes the teachings of Neo-Platonism in Proclus and other Neo-Platonists. c.534 Justinian I declares war against the Goths in Italy. 535 The Goths had murdered their Queen Amalasuntha. War of Justinian I against the Ostrogoths. 535-555 Justinian I. Embarkation of a Byzantine army for Italy in order to re-conquer Roman provinces that were lost to the Ostrogothic Kingdom. 535 Belisarius. Byzantine general. Begins the conquest of Italy from the Ostrogothic Kingdom (to 555). 535 Conquest of Sicily by Belisarius. 535 Belisarius (505-565) lands in Sicily and successfully overruns the island. Belisarius moves north with the objective of taking the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy from the Ostrogoths. Anthimus, a Monophysite (Monophysitism) bishop, is elected patriarch of Constantinople. 535 Church of St. Apollinaire in Classe, near Ravenna, Italy. Begun. 535 Built by Justinian I on the site of an old pagan temple of Apollo. The Church is built on the site of the remains of St. Apollinaire. The Church will be completed in 549. Saint Agapitus I (also Agapetus I). Pope. 535-536 Birthplace: Rome. Christian Basilica. Leptis Magna in North Africa. 535 Porec’ Cathedral, a Christian basilica. 535-543 In modern day Yugoslavia. St. Agapitus (Pope). Travels himself to Constantinople on a mission for the Ostrogoth King Theodahad in order to get Emperor Justinian to call off a threatened invasion of Italy. 535 While St. Agapitus (Pope) is in Constantinople, he declares Anthimus, the newly elected Monophysite bishop deposed. 535 Agapitus is unsuccessful in stopping the threatened invasion of Italy. He does convince Justinian to remove Anthimus and replace him with Mennas, whom Agapitus consecrates. This stirs up the Monophysite (Monophysitism) conflict again. Belisarius (505-565) leads his forces into Italy. Recaptures parts of Italy from the Ostrogothic kingdom. 535-540 The “Gothic War” in Italy. 535-555 This is an agonizing struggle of twenty years in Italy, fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Ostrogothic kingdom. St. Agapitus (Pope) dies in the city of Constantinople after his eleven month reign. April 22, 536 Saint Silverius. Pope. 536-537 Birthplace: Campagnia, Italy. St. Silverius (Pope). Refuses Theodora’s request to accept the monophysites Anthimus and Severus as Patriarchs of Constantinople and Antioch respectively. 536 Vitiges (Witiges), Ostrogothic general. Overruns and devastates the area outside of the city of Rome. 536 St. Silverius (Pope). In an attempt to save Rome from the Ostrogothic general Vitiges (Witiges) invites the imperial general Belisarius. 536 Witiges (Vitiges). King of the Ostrogoths. 536-540 Belisarius. Crosses the Straight of Messina in Sicily and enters into southern Italy. May 536 Conquest of Southern Italy by general Belisarius. Belisarius lays siege to and captures Naples (536). 536-537 Belisarius (505-565) of the Byzantine Empire. Recaptures the city of Rome from the Ostrogoths. December 9, 536 Naples becomes part of the Byzantine Empire. 536 Witiges, King of the Ostrogoths. Surrenders his possessions in Gaul to the Franks. 536 After the destruction of the Ostrogoth kingdom, Provence becomes part of the kingdom of the Franks. 536 St. Silverius (Pope) dies on the island of Palmarola off Naples. 537 Pope Vigilius. 537-555 Completion and dedication of the Basilica of Hagia Sophia (Holy wisdom) on Christmas Day of 537. Dec. 25, 537 Battle of Camlan. ca.537 Traditional date of the death of Arthur, King of the Britons, killed at the Battle of Camlan. Witiges, King of the Ostrogoths, besieges Belisarius, of the Byzantine Empire, in Rome for a whole year but fails to take it. March 537-March 538 Justinian I sends reinforcements to help Belisarius during the Ostrogothic siege of Rome. 538 The Ostrogoths finally withdraw from the territory of Rome in March after a siege of 12 months and 9 days. March 538 Famine. Italy. Thousands perish. 538 New War breaks out between the Byzantine Empire and Persia. 539 From 539 to 562. Belisarius conducts the war with Persia. Sack of Milan by the Ostrogoths. 539 Totila (Badwila), the new Ostrogoth leader, besieges Milan, Italy. The inhabitants of Milan are massacred by the Ostrogoths. Cassiodorus (c.490-585). Born in Calabria, Italy. Founds the great Monastery of Vivarium, near Squillace. 540 Birth of Saint Gregory the Great in Rome. c.540 Conquest of Ravenna by Belisarius (505-565). 540 Belisarius captures Witiges. Completion of the conquest and occupation of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy by Belisarius (begun in 535). The Huns, the Bulgars, and other barbarians cross the Danube River and raid the Balkans as far south as the Isthmus of Corinth. 540 Belisarius is recalled to Constantinople. 540 Invasion of Syria by the Persians. The Persians capture the city of Antioch. 540 Tomb of Galla Placida. Ravenna, Italy. 540 St. Benedict of Nursia (480-543). Founder of the Benedictine Order. Establishes his “Rule” - his book describing the monastic life. c.540 Hildebad, king of Ostrogoths, dies. Totila becomes king of the Ostrogoths after the violent death of Hildebad, his uncle. 541 Totila rules the Ostrogoths 541-552. Totila (Badwila) conquers Italy as far as Naples. 541-543 Temporarily ends the rule of the Byzantine Empire in Italy. Totila re-establishes Ostrogothic rule in Italy (541-552). Great plague (bubonic plague) originates in Syria and Egypt. 541 Great Plague is carried by infected rats coming from Syria and Egypt to Constantinople (541-544). Bubonic Plague spreads from the east and throughout most Europe and the Byzantine Empire (542-546). The plague kills many thousands of people in Constantinople. Columned basilica with mosaics in Parenzo (Istria). 542 St. Gildas (c.500-570). “De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae.” 542 This is an important source of very early British history. Totila (Badwila) leads the Ostrogoths and defeats the Byzantine army at Faenza and Mugello. 542 Saint Columba of Iona (c.521-597). Begins to develop Christian monasticism in Ireland. c.543 Totila, the barbarian ruler of the Ostrogoths, goes to meet St. Benedict of Nursia (480-543) at Monte Cassino. 543 Death of St. Scholastica. February 10, 543 Scholastica is the sister of St. Benedict of Nursia (480-543). Death of St. Benedict of Nursia (480-543). March 21, 543 Benedict dies at Monte Cassino. Synod of Constantinople. 543 Condemns the doctrine of Origen that the devil, all of the fallen angels, and all human beings, will all ultimately receive salvation and enter into Heaven. This doctrine is known as “Apocatastasis” meaning “complete restoration.” Death of Saint Caesarius of Arles (470-543). August 27, 543 The known world is shaken by a series of disastrous earthquakes. 543 Belisarius (505-565) completes the re-conquest of North Africa. 543 Totila, King of the Ostrogoths, captures Naples. 543 Edict of the Three Chapters. 544 Justinian I repudiates the anti-Monophysitic position (Monophysitism) of the Council of Chalcedon (451). The Monophysites are delighted. Belisarius (505-565). Takes command once again against the Ostrogoths in Italy. 544 Persians besiege Edessa. 544 They fail to take it. Turks settle in Asia. c.545-550 Birth of St. Columban (also known as Columbanus). 545 Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, captures the city of Rome (first entry) after siege and sacks it. 546 Totila, king of Ostrogoths, rules most of Italy until his death. 546-552 Cassiodorus founds another monastery at Beneventum. 546 Audoin founds the new Lombard dynasty and establishes his reign beyond the Save River. 546 Completion of the building of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. Built in a double octagonal shape (begun in 526). 547 Includes mosaics of Justinian and his wifeTheodora. Founding of the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria in England. c.547 Italy. Second famine in decade. 547 Thousands perish. Belisarius recaptures the city of Rome from the Ostrogoths. 547 Totila leaves Rome. For forty days in this year, the ancient city of Rome is emptied of all of its inhabitants. Kingdom of Bernicia is founded. 547 Ida accedes to the throne of Bernicia, one of the two Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Ida, King of Bernicia, builds Bamburgh Castle. 547 The bubonic plague from the east reaches England. 547 Theodora, the wife of Justinian, encourages Jacob Baradaeus (Monophysite) to ordain a Monophysite patriarch of Antioch. 548 Death of Theodora. Theodora is only forty years old. 548 Justinian is left to rule alone. Belisarius is superseded by Narses. 548 Siege of Petra. 548 The Persians will take Petra in 549. Justinian I. Builds a monastery dedicated to the Virgin Mary on Mount Sinai. 548-645 In the ninth century it will be renamed for St. Catherine. St. Felix of Nantes (c.513-584). Named bishop of Nantes. 549 St. Felix is responsible for the conversion of the Saxons of the Loire from heathenism to Christianity. Belisarius is called back to Constantinople. 549 He will not return to Italy again. Totila, the Ostrogoth, captures Rome for the second time. 549 Church of St. Apollinare in Classe, near Ravenna. Completed. 549 Begun in 535. Throne of Archbishop Maximian at Ravenna. ca.550 This is the most famous ivory carving of its period. It is decorated with panels of scenes from the life of Christ, St. Joseph, and the Virgin Mary. Procopius. Byzantine historian. “De Bellis.” 550 Provides a description of the Persian, Vandal, and Gothic Wars. Saint David of Wales. Works towards the conversion of parts of Wales from paganism to Christianity. c.550 Mosaic at the Church of St. Apollinare in Classe with one of the first representations of the Last Supper. 550 St. Servatius Church. Maastrict, Holland. Begun (to 1450). 550 Justinian I allows the Lombards to settle in Noricum and Pannonia (modern Austria and Hungary). 550-557 Founding of the Anglian kingdom of East Anglia in England. c.550 Invasion of Europe by the Avars. 550-551 Avars (Turkic tribes) and Bulgars from the east begin their westward migration towards the lower Danube provinces. Justinian I. Continuation of Nea Church and Hospice, Jerusalem. 550 The Voyage of Saint Brendan of Ireland. March 551 St. Brendan leaves Ireland. Defeat of the Ostrogoth fleet by the Byzantines. 551 Justinian I sends an army of 20,000 men led by Narsus (c.478-573) against Totila, the king of the Ostrogoths. 551 Battle of Busta Gallorum (Battle of Taginae). July 552 Narsus, the general of Justinian, and successor of Belisarius, defeats Totila and the Ostrogoths. Totila, the king of the Ostrogoths, is killed fighting against the Byzantines who are now under Byzantine general Narses (c.478-573). Narses totally defeats the Ostrogoths. This victory brings much of Italy under Byzantine rule. Italy is once again a Byzantine province (but only until 568 when the Lombards arrive). Teias. Last King of the Ostrogoths. 552-553 Conquest of Bavaria by the Franks. 552 Justinian I. Introduces the silk industry into Europe (Morea) after Emperor Justinian’s missionaries bring silkworms and the silk culture from China. 552 For the fifth time during the reign of Justinian, Rome falls, this time to his general Narses (c. 478-573). 552 Japanese begin to adopt many aspects of Chinese culture. c.552 Japanese use Chinese script. Arrival of Buddhist images and sutras in Japan. 552 The Emperor of Japan allows the building of a temple to house and worship all of the Buddhist images. A terrible epidemic immediately sweeps through the land. The images are all thrown into the Nanuia canal. Fifth General Church Council (553-555). 553 (Second Council of Constantinople). Called by Justinian I, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Formally condemns the “Three Chapters” and with them Vigilius. Reiterates the condemnation of Nestorianism and all Nestorian writings. Condemns the errors of Origen of Alexandria (Origenism). Byzantine general Narses goes south into Campania, after the last remnants of the Ostrogoths near Nuceria (Noceria). 553 Teias, the last Ostrogothic King is killed. Narses. Byzantine general. Annexes Rome and Naples for the Byzantine Empire. 553 Frankish embassy is sent to Constantinople. 553 Crypt of St. Médard at Soissons. 553 Narses is appointed Exarch, the highest military and civil authority in Italy. 554 Byzantines rule Italy from the city of Ravenna. Belisarius, Byzantine general, invades Spain. 554 Conquest of only the southeast of Spain by the imperial armies. Cordova becomes the capital of the Byzantine province. Justinian I reforms administration of Egypt. 554 Athanagild. King of the Visigoths. 554-567 St. Germanus of Paris (c.496-576). Named Bishop of Paris, by Childebert I, one of the sons of Clovis. 554 England is divided into seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (the Heptarchy): c.555 Saxon Essex, Sussex, and Wessex; Anglian East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria; and Jutish Kent. Narses (c.478-573), the Byzantine aged eunuch general, completes the destruction of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy, and again makes Italy a Byzantine province. End of the “Gothic War (535-555) in Italy. 555 Hereafter, the Ostrogoths, like the Vandals, and other barbarian Germanic tribes, disappear from history. The kingdom of the Ostrogoths in Italy, originally formed by Theodoric, ceases to exist. Pope Pelagius I. 556-561 The great city of Constantinople is struck by an earthquake. 557 Thousands are killed. St. Comgall (516-601). Founds the great Bangor Abbey in Ireland. 558 Death of Childebert I (511-558), king of Paris. 558 Lothair (Clotaire) I, the sole survivor of Clovis’s warring sons, reunites the Kingdom of the Franks. 558 Clotaire is sole monarch of the Franks. Clotaire I rules 558-561. Bubonic plague sweeps through Asia, Africa, and Europe. 558 At its peak, in Constantinople thousands die daily. Unknown number of thousands perish. A hoard of Huns and Slavs reach the gates of Constantinople. 559 Belisarius (505-565) comes out of retirement to defend Constantinople. He repels the invading barbarian army of Huns and Slavs. Constantinople is rescued from destruction by the pagans. Ethelbert I, son of Eormenric, and great grandson of Hengist, becomes King of Kent, England. 560 Ethelbert of Kent is the chief Anglo-Saxon king. Reign of Aethelberht (Ethelbert), King of Kent. 560-616 Ethelbert will later receive Saint Augustine (597) and himself will undergo his conversion from paganism to Christianity. Ethelbert makes Kent supreme in England. Ethelbert prepares the first code of English Law. Rise of the Tritheist Heresy (Tritheism). 560-575 Maintains the separate existence of the three persons of the Holy Indivisible Trinity (Tritheism). The implication is that there are three gods. Christianity is based on monotheism, not polytheism. Eutocius. Writes commentaries on the writings of Archimedes and Apollonius. c.560 Pope John III. 561-574 Consecration of the Basilica of San Juan Batista of Banos de Cerreto, Spain. 561 Death of Chlothar I (Lothair), son of Clovis, and King of the Franks. 561 His four sons divide the Frankish Kingdom again. Sigibert rules as Frankish king of Austrasia (to 575). Guntram (Gontram) rules Burgundy (to 592). Capital at Orléans. Chilperic I rules Nuestria (Soissons) to 584. Charibert, King of Franks, rules Paris (to 567). St. Guntram (Gontram) (b.c.532-592). King of Burgundy. 561-592 Avar tribesmen from the Volga River reach Thuringia. 562 End of the great Persian war against Chosroes. 562 Peace between Justinian I and Chosroes. Saint Columba (521-597). Irish abbot and missionary to pagan Scotland. St. Columba sets sail from Ireland with twelve companions. St. Columba settles at Iona, an island off the coast of Scotland. 563 Saint Columba (521-597). Irish. Founds Christian monastery and Church on the island of Iona, off the coast of Scotland. 563 From Iona, Columba, works toward the conversion of the savage Picts of Scotland from paganism to Christianity. Columba evangelizes all of Pictland. Saint Columba (521-597). Converts Brude, Scotland’s King of the Picts, from paganism to Christianity (at Inverness). 563 Consecration of the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) at Constantinople. Dec. 24, 563 Council of Braga. Condemns Priscillianism (the Priscillian Heresy). 565 St. Columbanus (c.540-615). Enters the monastery of Bangor in Ireland, which had recently been founded by St. Comgall in 558. 565 Break up of the White Hun settlement in Western Turkestan by migrating Turks. 565 The death of Belisarius, the great general of the Byzantine Empire. 565 Death of Justinian I, Byzantine Emperor. 565 He is succeeded by his nephew Justin II. Justin II rules 565-578. Death of Audoin, Lombard ruler. 565 Alboin, his son and successor, with the help of the Avars, destroys the Gothic kingdom of the Gepidae on the lower Vistula. Death of Charibert I, King of Franks. 567 His Kingdom of Paris is divided between the surviving brothers: Guntram, Sigibert I, and Chilperic I. Partition of the Frankish Kingdom into Austrasia (Lorraine, Belgium, the right bank of the Rhine), Neustria (France), and Burgundy. 567 From 567 to 613. St. Honoratus (d.570). Appointed Bishop of Milan, Italy. 567 Arrival of the Lombards in Italy. 568 Appearance on the plains of Northern Italy, after crossing the Alps, of an army of men called Lombards. They are from the region of the Upper Danube River, where they were one of the most powerful Germanic tribes. Invasion and conquest of Northern Italy by the Lombards (Langobards) under Alboin (son of King Audoin). 568 The Lombards, a barbarian and savage Germanic tribe, invade and conquer Northern Italy. Alboin founds the Lombard Kingdom in northern and central Italy that will last for 206 years. The Lombard kingdom in Italy will last until 774. Ravenna is left to the Byzantine Empire. The Lombards drive the Byzantines from Northern Italy, to the south, but leave them in Ravenna (exarchate). The Lombards do not take Rome however due to the efforts of Pope Saint Gregory the Great. Alboin. King of the Lombards in Italy. 568-573 Ethelbert, King of Kent. Defeated and driven back by the West Saxons, under Ceawlin and Cutha at the Battle of Wimbledon. 568 Death of Narses, the great general of the Byzantine Empire. 568 Belisarius had previously died in 565. Leovigild, King of the Visigoths. 568-586 The Visigoths rule most of Spain, except for the area that is controlled by the Byzantine Empire. The Avars, conquering nomads from the steppes of Asia, invade the Byzantine Empire, and spread over Hungary (568), Poland, and what is now called Prussia. 568-601 The Turks send embassies to the Byzantine emperor. 569 In a treaty between them, the Western Turks are allies with the Byzantine Empire against their mutual enemy, the Sassanid Persian empire. Treaty lasts 569-582. Mohammed (570-632). Born at Mecca in Arabia (what is now called Saudi Arabia). 570 He will be the founder of Mohammedanism. At the time of his birth, Mecca owes its importance to the Kaaba, the shrine of the heathen god Hobal and his oracle. The god of the Kaaba was the god of the city territory. The Meccans were his subjects, paying him the tithe of their crops and the first born of their herds. He is born 94 years after the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD. The birth of Mohammed marks the end of the pre-Moslem era of the history of the world. Death of St. Gildas (c.500-570) at Rhuys, Brittany. January 29, 570 Overthrow of Abyssinian rule in the Yemen by the Persians. 570 Yemen will remain under Persian rule until the Mohammedan conquest. Leovigild, King of Visigoths. Drives out the remaining Byzantine forces from western Spain. 570 Lombards led by Alboin take Pavia after a three year siege (569-572). 571 Pavia becomes the capital of the Lombard kingdom. By 572, the Lombards (Langobards) have conquered most of northern and central Italy. 572 The Lombard kingdom is established in northern Italy. The Persians dominate Arabia from 572 (until 628). 572 Byzantine-Persian Wars (572-591). Begin. 572 New wars between the Byzantine Empire and Persia. St. Martin of Braga (519-579). Pannonian. By 572 he is bishop of Braga (the Roman Bracara Augusta), in what is now northern Portugal. 572 Beginning of Frankish civil wars. 573 War between Chlothar’s son Chilperic and Sigibert I, King of Austrasia. Sigibert, King of Austrasia, is encouraged by his wife Brunhilda, to declare war on his brother Chilperic, king of Soissons. Chilperic had murdered his wife Galswintha, Brunhilda’s sister, in order to marry Fredegund. Sigibert I appeals to the Germans to the east of the Rhine River for help. Murder of Alboin, King of Lombards. 573 Arranged by his wife Rosamund. Cleph. King of the Lombards. 573-574 St. Nicetius of Lyons (513-573). Exorcist. Dies at Lyons, France. April 2, 573 St. Nicetius was Archbishop of Lyons from 552-573. St. Gregory of Tours (b.538-d.594). Made Bishop of Tours. 573 He is bishop until his death. St. Gregory of Tours (538-594). Writes the “Ten Books of Histories”. His work will later be known as the “History of the Franks.” 573-594 This is one of the greatest original sources on the history of the Franks. The future Pope Gegory the Great founds six monasteries in Sicily. 574 Cleph, King of the Lombards, is stabbed to death. 574 Saint Columban (540-615). Arrives at the court of Sigibert I, King of Austrasia, and reveals the Gospel to him. 574 Sigibert I, King of Austrasia, pursues his brother Chilperic to Tournai. 575 Sigibert is raised in triumph on a shield. Sigibert is assassinated on orders from Fredegund. Sigibert is succeeded by his son Childebert II, with his widow Brunhilda as regent of the kingdom of Austrasia (575-613). Chilperic invades the kingdom of Sigibert. 575 Guntram sends his general Mummolus to remove him. Mummolus defeats Chilperic’s general Desiderius and the Neustrian forces retreat from Austrasia. East Anglia is formed into a kingdom. 575 The name of Angle-land is given to a small part of the eastern coast. This is East Engla-land. Pope Benedict I. 575-579 St. Columba of Iona (521-597). 575 Attends the Synod of Drumceat in Meath, Ireland. The Slovenes move into Carniola. 575 Persians overthrow Abyssinian rule over Yemen. 575 Alexander of Tralles (c.525-605). “De re medica.” 575 Buddhism begins to have a strong hold on Japan. 575 Martyrdom of St. Cadoc. c.575 He is lanced by the chief of the pagan Saxons, that were overrunning the country at the time. Scotland is struck by a most fatal famine. 576 Thousands perish. The Persians drive Auxumite invaders from southern Arabia. 576 The Byzantines and the Turks combine forces in an unsuccessful invasion of Persia. 576-578 Death of St. Germanus of Paris (c.496-576). May 28, 576 Battle of Deorham (Dyrham). 577 Cuthurine and Ceawlin and the Anglo-Saxons of Wessex defeat the Britons. They kill three of their Briton kings, Coinmail, Condidan, and Farinmail. The Pope takes Gregory (the Great) from the monastery, and ordains him “Seventh Deacon”. 578 Justin II, Byzantine Emperor, dies insane. 578 He is succeeded by his general, Tiberius. Tiberius II Constantinus. Byzantine Emperor. 578-582 Tiberius fails to stop a huge influx of Slavs into the Balkan territories. Pelagius II. Pope. 579-590 Pope Pelagius II sends Gregory (540-604) as secretary to Constantinople in order to get help from the Byzantine Emperor against the Lombards who are ravaging Italy. 579 Emperor Tiberius II does not help. Gregory will remain there until 586. Death of St. Finnian. Ireland. c.579 Death of Chosroes, king of Persia. 579 Hormisdas IV. King of Persia. 579-589 Theodoric, king of Bernicia dies. He is succeeded by Friduuald. 579 The Lombards successfully drive the last of the Ostrogoths that are in Italy north of the Alps. 580 Death of St. Sorus (French: Sour) (501-580). February 1, 580 Founder of the Abbey of Terrasson (France). Destruction of Monte Casino by the Lombards. 581 Founding of the short lived Sui Dynasty in China. 581-618 Founded by Wen-ti. Sui Dynasty rules China. 581-618 The Great Wall of China is reconstructed as defense against the Turks and the Mongols. Five million people are employed to construct a water transport system. A Civil Service Examination is introduced. The Sui Dynasty will end in 618. The Turk empire splits into two parts: the Western Turks and the Eastern Turks. 581 Death of Tiberius II Constantinus, Byzantine Emperor. 582 Maurikios, (Maurice) is the Byzantine Emperor. 582-602 Founding of the kingdom of Mercia in England. c.582 Mercia is the last kingdom that is founded by the Angles. Death of Cassiodorus (c.490-583), at age 92. 583 He is a Roman author, scholar, historian, teacher, and monk. He wrote the “Chronica,” the “Institutiones Divinarum et saecularium litterarum,” and in his 92nd year, the “Ostrographia,” an account of the Ostrogoths and Ostrogothic rule. Avars, conquering nomads from the steppes of Asia, reach the Danube River and seize Danube forts. 583 Death of Chilperic I, King of Neustria. 584 Clotaire II (Clothar), his son, becomes King of Neustria. Rules 584-629. Slavs in the Balkan peninsula overrun Greece and begin to menace the Byzantine Empire. 584 Autharis (Authari), son of Cleph. King of the Lombards (also called Langobards). 584-590 Kurt. Becomes the first known Bulgarian ruler. 584 St. Leander of Seville (c.534-c.600). Appointed Bishop of Seville. 584 The king of Paikche (part of Korea) sends another image of Buddha to Japan. Another Buddhist temple is built. Another epidemic strikes Japan, and Moriyo Mononabe burns the Buddhist temple down. 585 Martyrdom of St. Hermenegild. 585 Hermenegild was the son of Leovigild, the Arian Visiogothic king of Spain. Leovigild imprisons and has his own son killed, then takes over the entire Iberian peninsula. Leovigild, King of the Visigoths (Arian). Overthrows the Suevic kingdom in Spain. Conquers all of Spain. 585 St. Columban (540-615). Leaves Ireland with twelve other monks as a missionary to Gaul. Their objective is the conversion of the pagans in Gaul. 585 Leovigild dies. Reccared is made King of the Visigoths. 586 Reccared I is King of the Visigoths 586-601. Gregory returns to Rome from Constantinople. 586 Gregory is made Abbot of his old monastery (rules 586-590). Beginning of the conversion of the Visigoths in Spain from Arianism (Arian Heresy) to Christianity (Roman Catholicism). 587 Battle of Cuil Feda near Clonard. 587 First Buddhist monastery in Japan. 587 Japanese emperor Yomei converts to Buddhism. c.587 Wars of the Heptarchy in England. 588-828 Death of St. Frediano of Lucca (Frigidian; Fridianus). March 18, 588 Arabs, Khazars, and Turks invade Persia, but are defeated. 589 Persian general Varahran defeats Turkish invaders of Persia. 589 Under King Authari and Queen Theodelinda, the barbarian Lombards begin their conversion from paganism to Christianity. 589 Conversion of Reccared, King of Spain, from Arianism to Christianity. 589 Reccared I is the first Christian King of the Visigoths. Provincial Church Council of Toledo. 589 The “filioque” clause is added to the Nicene Creed. The Visigoths renounce Arianism (the Arian heresy). St. Leander of Seville begins the organization of the Church in Spain. Hormisdas (Hormizd), the Persian emperor, is deposed and murdered after several defeats by the Byzantine Empire. 589 Chosroes II, is deposed by the Persian army, and leaves for Constantinople. 589 He seeks help from the Byzantine emperor to regain his throne. Khusru Parviz (Chosroes II in Greek) ascends the throne of Persia. 590 He renews the war with the Byzantine Empire. He conquers Jerusalem, Damascus, and Egypt and restores the Persian boundaries. Chosroes II rules as Sassanian king of Persia in 590 and then again in 591-628. Varahran, Persian general, rebels against Chosroes II and rules briefly as Varahran (Bahram) VI. 590-591 Wen Ti, the Sui Emperor, defeats Chen forces at Jian-Kang (later called Nanjing) and brings the Chen dynasty (557-589) to an end. 589 Bubonic plague in Rome. 590 In April, while the bubonic plague rages in Rome, Gregory organizes a sevenfold penitential procession to march to the basilica of S. Maria Maggiore, and implore deliverance from the plague. April 590 The plague subsides when Gregory sees a vision of the Destroying Angel sheathing his sword on Hadrian’s mausoleum. Hadrian’s mausoleum is renamed the Castel Sant’Angelo. Gregory (b.540-d.604) is elected Pope. September 3, 590 Papacy of Saint Gregory I the Great (b.540-d.604). 590-604 ● Sends Augustine, a Roman Benedictine, and 40 other monks to England (596). ● Lays reaffirms papal claims to temporal authority and independence from secular powers. ● Codifies church music. The Gregorian chant is named after him. ● Undertakes the union of the Western Church under Rome. ● Canon of the Mass is established; changes liturgy (597). ● Repairs the aqueducts of Rome. Saint Gregory the Great (540-640). “40 Homilies on the Gospel.” 590-591 Great flood followed by famine in England. 590 Thousands perish. Death of Authari, King of the Lombard (Langobards). 590 Succeeded by Agilulf. Rules 590-615. Agilulf, Duke of Turin. Builds the Lombard state in Italy. 590-615 St. Gregory of Tours (c.540-594). Mentions church window glass in his writings. 590 Supremacy of Ethelbert of Kent. 590-616 Ethelbert has been ruling since 560. St. Columban (545-615). Builds his first monastery at Annegray in the Vosges Mountains. 590 He will found two more monasteries, one at Luxeuil in Burgundy and later another at Fontes (Fontaine). Two Lombard leaders become dukes of Spoleto and Benevento. 591 Maurice, Byzantine Emperor. Restores Chosroes II (Khusru Parviz) to the throne of Persia, in return for most of Armenia. 591 Constantinople is threatened by invading barbarian Avars. 591 Byzantine Empire wars with the invading Avars. 591-601 Chosroes II of Persia. His second reign. 591-628 Battle of Adam’s Grave. England. 591 Ceawlin is deposed and succeeded by Ceol as King of Wessex (“Old King Cole”). Hussa, king of Bernicia dies. He is succeeded by Ethelfrith. 591 Ethelfrith, King of Bernicia 591-616. Death of Guntram of Burgundy. 592 Gregory the Great (540-604). Arranges a peace with the Lombard Duke of Spoleto, Italy. 592 Long drought and locusts in England. Jan.-Sept. 592 Thousands perish. Redwald (Raedwald). First historical king of East Anglia, an early English kingdom. 593-617 Priscus. Byzantine general. Attacks the invading Avars. The Avars are driven back. 593 Constantinople is saved from the barbarians. Suiko, Empress of Japan (593-628). 593 After 593, Empress Suiko and Crown Prince Shotoku establish Buddhism and Chinese culture in Japan. Ceawlin, the deposed King of Wessex, dies. 593 Aethelfrith (Ethelrid). King of Northumbria. 593-617 He is the son of Aethelric, whom he succeeds to the kingdom of Northumbria. Gregory the Great (540-604). “22 Homilies on Ezechiel.” 593 “The Four Books of Dialogues on the Life and Miracles of the Italian Fathers (i.e., Saints) and on the Immortality of the Soul.” Written. 593-594 After killing almost half of the population in Europe, the bubonic plague which began in 542, begins to subside. 594 St. Gregory the Great (540-604). Arranges a peace with Agilulf the king of the Lombards. 595 Byzantine emperor Maurice is angered, but the peace stands. Pope Gregory I the Great (540-604). Sends Saint Augustine, a Roman Benedictine, and forty other monks as missionaries to pagan England. They are to travel from Italy up the Rhone Valley, over the Alps, to Tours, Paris, and then to England. 596 The objective is the conversion of Britain from paganism to Christianity. They are sent to Ethelbert, King of Kent. Augustine is to become its first Archbishop. Augustine had previously trained under the Bishop of Messina, Italy. The mission involved lifelong banishment from civilization in what was at that time a savage country. One of the monks that accompanied Augustine was Lawrence, who would later succeed him at Canterbury. Augustine (d.604) is consecrated bishop by St. Virgilius of Arles, the metropolitan and papal vicar of Gaul. 597 Saint Augustine of Canterbury (d.604). Lands on the Isle of Thanet, England with thirteen monks from St. Andrew’s Monastery at Rome.April 597 His first objective is the conversion from heathenism to Christianity of Ethelbert, King of Kent and High King of southern England. Ethelbert, King of Kent, agrees to receive St. Augustine in audience in the open air. 597 Augustine and his companions are given a place to live in Canterbury. Death of Saint Columba of Iona (c.521-597) on Iona. June 9, 597 St. Augustine (d.604) begins the conversion of Ethelbert and the Kingdom of Kent from paganism to Christianity. 597 St. Augustine baptizes Ethelbert, King of Kent (June 1, 597). Beginning of the conversion of all of England from paganism to Christianity by Augustine and the men that are with him. Augustine receives the support of Ethelbert, King of Kent. Ethelbert is the first Christian English King. Ethelbert, King of Kent. Grants religious freedom to all of his subjects, Ethelbert understands that conversion to Christianity by conviction is the only true conversion. 597 St. Augustine of Canterbury (d.604). Baptizes 10,000 Saxon new converts (probably in the river). December 25, 597 Ceol, king of Wessex dies. He is succeeded by Ceowulf. 597 Death of St. Simeon Stylites the Younger (521-597). May 24, 597 St. Augustine of Canterbury (d.604). Builds and founds a Benedictine monastery at Canterbury, England on land that is given to him by King Ethelbert of Kent. 598 St. Augustine of Canterbury sets up the first English school at Canterbury, England. 598 Treaty of peace between the exarch Callinicus, and Agilulf, King of the Lombards, in the name of the Byzantine Empire and the Lombards. 599 Lombard rule in Italy is strengthened. Seventh Century St. Gregory the Great (540-604). Works for the peaceful conversion of the Jews. 600 Introduces illustrated books for illiterates to replace the Scriptures. St. Gregory, the Great. Founds the “Schola Cantorum” (music school) in Rome. 600 St. Gregory the Great. “Antiphonar;” Gregory’s collection of church chants (vocal music). 600 Gregorian chant. Saint Augustine of Canterbury (d.604). Founds the Christian Church at Canterbury, England. Augustine becomes the first Archbishop of Canterbury. 600 Codex Usserianus Primus. c.600 A copy of the gospels. Written in ink on parchment. Now preserved in Trinity College, Dublin. St. Isidore of Seville. Becomes Bishop of Seville. 600 Smallpox Plague. 600 Spreads from India via China to Asia Minor and to Southern Europe. Ethelbert, King of Kent. Issues the first of the Anglo-Saxon codes of law. 600 St. Gregory the Great. Writes a guide describing the duties of the clergy. c.600 Long period of severe famine throughout France. 600-604 Thousands perish. Barbarian invasions gradually begin to cease in Western Europe. 600 Arles Cathedral. Begun. 600 The Khazars form an empire between the lower Volga River and the lower Don River. 600 Coptic art is established in Egypt. c.600 Coptic art is a mixture of Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Egyptian, and Arab influences. Beginning of the gradual formation and development of the Italian language. c.600 Czechs and Slovaks settle in Bohemia and Moravia. 600 Yugoslavs settle in Serbia. Chinese artists begin to settle in Japan. c.600 Battle of Viminacium. 601 Byzantine forces under general Priscus crush a large body of the barbarian Avars, a tribe from Asia, at Viminacium. Priscus kills some 20,000 of the Avar barbarians. This victory only wins 18 years of peace. Development of the Tantric school of Buddhism in India. Will spread to Tibet, China, and Japan. c.600 Pope St. Gregory the Great (540-604). Sends additional missionaries to England to aid St. Augustine. 601 Paulinus is one of them. Gregory sends Augustine “the pallium.” The first cathedral is built in England. 601 St. Augustine of Canterbury (d.604). Establishes the archbishopric of Canterbury in England. 602 The child of Agilulf, King of the Lombards, and Theudelinda both receive Christian baptism. 602 Mauricius, Byzantine Emperor, is killed by Phocas. 602 Phocas, a soldier, reigns as his successor, after seizing his throne. Phocas rules 602-610. Phocas is anti-Monophysitism and anti-Judaism. Disastrous floods of the Yellow River (Huang Ho) in China. 602 Beginning of the conversion of the barbarian Lombards in Italy from paganism to Christianity. c.603 Founding of the bishopric of Rochester, England. 603 The first St. Andrew’s Church is built in Rochester, England. 603 The first St. Paul’s Church is built in London. 603 St. Columbanus (540-615). Refuses to attend a Gallican synod at Chalons when he is summoned to explain his Celtic usages. 603 Aethelfrith, King of the Northumbrians (Anglo-Saxon). Defeats Aidan (Aedhan) at the Battle of Daegsastan (Degsastan). 603 Persian invasion of the Byzantine Empire. 603 The Persians start a new war with the Byzantine Empire (603 to 628). Shotoko Taishi code in Japan. 604 Demands the veneration of Buddha, his doctrines, his laws, his teachings, and all of the Buddhist writings. Death of Pope St. Gregory the Great (540-604). March 12, 604 He is succeeded by Sabinian (604-606). Death of Saint Augustine of Canterbury. Augustine was the first Archbishop of Canterbury. May 26, 604 St. Lawrence of Canterbury. Succeeds Augustine as the second Archbishop of Canterbury. 604 St. Mellitus (d. 624). Responsible for the conversion of the East Saxons (Essex) under King Sigibert (Sabert) from paganism to Christianity. 604 A bishopric is founded for them at London. Intense heat and drought cause famine throughout England. 605 Unknown numbers of thousands perish. Fatima, daughter of Mohammed, is born (d.632). 606 Building of St. Trophime Cathedral in Arles, France. 606 Pope Boniface III. 606-607 First Japanese ambassadors in China. 607 St. John the Almsgiver (c.550-c.619). Named Patriarch of Alexandria, Egypt. 608 St. Boniface IV. Pope. 608-615 Consecration of the Pantheon, previously a pagan temple in Rome, as a Christian church (Church of Santa Maria Rotonda). 609 Phocas, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire, is deposed and killed. 610 Heraclius assumes power as emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Heraclius rules from 610 until his death in 641. Marks the beginning of the Heraclian Dynasty. Reign of Heraclius I, Byzantine Emperor. 610-641 During his reign he will recover lands lost to Persia and then lose them to the Arab Moslems at the end of his reign. Rise of the Monothelite heresy (Monothelitism). 610-640 Denies that Jesus Chist had both a human will and a divine will. Sergius becomes Patriarch of Constantinople (610 to 638). 610 Theodoric II, King of Burgundy. Orders all Irish monks banished from his realm. 610 He exiles St. Columbanus (540-615). St. Columbanus visits the tomb of St. Martin of Tours. The Arabs defeat the Persians at Dhu-Qar. 610 Ceowulf, king of Wessex dies. He is succeeded by Cynegils. 611 Mohammed, on Mount Hira, at age 44, begins the founding of Mohammedanism. He proclaims and begins teaching his new religion. 611 Sack of Antioch by the Persian armies. 611 Persians conquer Syria. 611 Burgundy wars against and conquers Neustria. 612 Sisibut (Sisebuto). King of the Visigoths in Spain. 612-621 St. Columbanus (540-615). When Burgundy conquers Neustria he is banished from Neustria. At age 73, Columbanus crosses the Alps and goes into Italy. He is welcomed to Milan by Agilulf, King of the Lombards. 612 St. Columbanus (540-615). Constructs his final monastery at Bobbio, in northern Italy. 612 The monastery at Bobbio is built upon the ruins of an old basilica that was dedicated to St. Peter. In the course of the Byzantine wars, the Persians invade Cappadocia, and reach Antioch. 612 St. Gallus (or Gall); a student of St. Columbanus (540-615). Founds the Monastery of St. Gallen, in what is now called Switzerland. 612 Peace of Paris ends Frankish civil wars. 613 Reign of Clotaire (Lothair) II, Merovingian king from 584-629. Unites Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy. 613-629 Reunites the Frankish realm and appoints Pepin of Landen and his counsellor Arnulf, Bishop of Metz (ancestors of the Carolingians) to govern. Clotaire II, King of the Franks. “Edictum Chlotacharii.” Oct. 18, 614 Defines the rights of the Church, kings, and nobility. Conquest of Damascus by the Persians. 614 Sack and capture of Jerusalem by the Sassanian Persian armies. 614 They massacre 50,000 of the inhabitants. Removal of the True Cross from Jerusalem by the Sassanian Persians. The True Cross is carried to Ctesiphon. St. Columban, aka Columbanus (540-615). Dies in Bobbio, Italy. November 23, 615 Originally of the Celtic rite, his foundations will follow St. Benedict’s rule of Benedictine Order. Death of Agilulf, King of the Lombards. Agilulf introduced Christianity to his people, the Lombards. 615 Saint Deusdedit I (St. Adeodatus I). Pope. 615-618 Birthplace: Rome. The Persian armies overrun and take Egypt. 616-619 The Persians will subjugate Egypt by 619. Benedictine Church and convent for women at Folkestone. 616 Death of Saint Ethelbert, King of Kent. February 24, 616 Ethelbert ruled wisely for 56 years from 560 to 616. Battle of Chester. 616 Aethelfrith, King of Northumbria (Anglo-Saxon, defeats the Welsh (Britons) at the Battle of Chester. The pagan Anglo-Saxons massacre twelve hundred monks of Bangor Monastery. Edbald (Eadbald). King of Kent. Succeeds his father, Ethelbert, as King of Kent. 616 Eadbald marries his father’s wife. Kent lapses back into paganism once again. Adaloald (Adalwald) becomes King of the Lombards. 616 Adaloald rules 616-625. Redwald, King of East Anglia, takes an army into Mercia and defeats the Northumbrians on their own frontier. 616 Aethelfrith, King of Northumbria, is defeated and killed by Raedwald, King of East Anglia, at the Battle of the Idle River. 616 Aethelfrith is succeeded by Edwin. Edwin rules Northumbria 616-633. The Visigoths take remaining lands in what is now Spain from the Byzantine Empire. 616 Edwin (Eadwine) of Northumbria. Enlarges his kingdom located in the north of England. 617 Northumbria becomes the dominant kingdom in England until 685. Persian armies are at Alexandria, Egypt. 618 Each of the three parts of the kingdom of the Franks, Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy, has a mayor (“majordomus”), who presides over the royal court. He is usually called the “mayor of the palace”. 618 An official of the Sui regime has emperor Yangdi murdered. He then installs himself as emperor Kao Zu. 618 The T’ang Dynasty replaces the Sui Dynasty in China (see 581). 618 Foundation of T’ang Dynasty in China. Annexes Korea and leads successful campaigns in Mongolia, Tibet, and Turkestan. It marks the Golden Age of China with advances in the development of printing, painting, and poetry. T’ang Dynasty in China. 618-907 Death of St. Lawrence (Laurentius) of Canterbury. February 2, 619 Mellitus is made the new Archbishop of Canterbury. Death of St. John the Almsgiver (c.550-c.619). November 11, 619 Paulinus of Rome. Travels from the kingdom of Kent to the court of Edwin, the King of Northumbria, in what is now called Yorkshire. 619 Jerusalem is sacked by the Persians. 619 Chosroes II. The Persians hold Egypt, Jerusalem, and Damascus and have armies at the Hellespont, one mile away from Constantinople. 619 Persian troops threaten Constantinople. Kurt. King of the Bulgars. 619 Converts from heathenism to Christianity. Pope Boniface V. 619-625 “Suan-Ching” (“Ten Classics”). 619 Scientific books written in China. Chosroes II. The Persians take Rhodes and Ancyra. 620 The Sassanian Persian Empire is now at its largest in terms of territory. Origins of the Khazar State. c.620 The Vikings (Northmen) begin their invasions of Ireland. 620 Recared II. King of the Visigoths. 621 Swinthilla (Swintilla). King of the Visigoths. 621-631 In Japan, an imperial edict establishes Buddhism as the official religion of the land. 621 St. Isidore of Seville (b.c.560-636). Philosopher, theologian, and encyclopedist. “Etymologia.” “Originum sive etymologiarum librii XX.” 622 (“Etymologies”). Produces an encyclopedia on the arts and sciences. His “Etymologia” becomes a general reference work for the next eight hundred years. The controversy surrounding the Monothelite heresy (Monothelitism) intensifies. 622-680 The Hegira of Mohammed to “Yathrib” (later called Medina). July 622 Mohammed’s flight from Mecca to Medina. After his proclamation, Mohammed is forced to flee from Mecca. Mohammed enters Medina and is acknowledged as the military sovereign. The Hegira marks the beginning (year 1) of the Mohammedan Calendar (Moslem Era). This is the traditional date of the Hegira. Between 611 and 622, the Sassanian Persians have conquered much of the southern Byzantine Empire. 622 Persians have intermittently threatened the Byzantine Empire from 540. Heraclius I, Byzantine Emperor . Begins to successfully drive the Persians from the Byzantine Empire. 622 His campaigns will continue from 622 to 628. Heraclius I (b.575-d.641). Byzantine Emperor. Heraclius invades Persia. 622 Heraclius lands at Issus and defeats the Persian army at the Battle of Issus. Byzantine forces invade Armenia. 623 Samo, a Frank from Sens, encounters Slav tribes in Carinthia. He frees them from the Avars, and founds the Slavonic Kingdom. 623 Dagobert, elder son of Clothar II, becomes king of Austrasia. 623 Dagobert I rules 623-639. Arnulf, Bishop of Metz is his advisor. Pepin of Landen is his “Mayor of the Palace”. Visigoths in Spain reconquer the Mediterranean shore from the Byzantine Empire. c.624 Battle of Badr. 624 Mohammed (570-632) launches his first military operation. Mohammed with 310 of his followers intercept, and route a caravan of 1000 Meccans on its return from Syria to Mecca. Captures the caravan which was defended by his old enemy Abu Sufyan. Mohammed (570-632), age 54, asks Abu Bekr (his future successor) permission to betroth his daughter Aisha (she is 6 years old). 624 Mohammed’s marriage to Aisha will not be consummated until she is nine years old. During his lifetime Mohammed will have over 13 other wives. St. Justus of Canterbury (d.c. 627). Succeeds as the fourth Archbishop of Canterbury, England. 624 St. Justus, Archbishop of Canterbury. Consecrates Paulinus as Bishop of the Northumbrians. 625 Pope Honorius I. 625-638 Mohammed (570-632). Begins to dictate to his scribe the Koran (Qur’ân), 114 Suras. 625 Arioald. King of Lombards. 625-630 Dagobert I. King of Austrasia. Founds the Abbey of St. Denis. 625 Mohammed (570-632). Orders the slaughter of the 800 males of the Jewish Beni Qoreiga tribe in Medina. 625 He sells the women and children into slavery. Mohammed has over 700 of the Jews beheaded at Medina. Gourdon gold chalice, France. 625 “Grievous” famine throughout Britain. 625 Thousands perish. Siege of Constantinople by the Persians and Avars. 626 Constantinople successfully resists the ferocious double siege of Persians (Sassanian Empire) and Avars. Heraclius I (b.575-d.641), Byzantine Emperor, successfully repulses the double attack of the Persians and barbarian Avars on Constantinople. 626 Heraclius I (b.575-d.641). Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Expels the Sassanian Persians from Egypt. 626 Siege of Medina. 627 Alarmed at the growing strength of Mohammed’s movement in Medina, over 10,000 anti-Mohammedans organize an attack on the city of Medina (from Mecca). Medina is defended by Mohammed and 3,000 of his followers. After 20 days the besieges under Abu Sufyan give up the attack and disperse. Edwin, King of Northumbria. Converts from paganism to Christianity as a result of his wife Ethelburga and the Roman missionary Paulinus. 627 Edwin, King of Northumbria (England). Founds the city of Edinburgh and begins the conversion of his country from paganism to Christianity. Edwin is baptized on Easter Day 627, by Paulinus. 627 Edwin is the first Christian King of Northumbria. Heraclius I (b.575-d.641). Invades Assyria and Mesopotamia. 627 Heraclius I. Byzantine Emperor. Decisively defeats the Persians in a great battle at Nineveh. Dec. 12, 627 The Battle of Nineveh gives the Byzantines a decisive victory over Mesopotamia. marches his army on to Ctesiphon, the capital of the Sassanian Empire. Chosroes II of Persia is forced to flee for his life. The True Cross will be surrendered to the Byzantines, who return it back to Jerusalem. Honorius (d.653). Originally born at Rome. Named the fifth Archbishop of Canterbury in England. 627 Beginning of the conversion of the Kingdom of Northumbria in England from heathenism to Christianity (see Paulinus, 625). 627 Reign of T’ai Tsung, Emperor of China. 627-649 Under T’ai Tsung, China reaches the highest stage of its history. Annihilation of the Eastern Turks. 627 Building of many new churches in Rome by Pope Honorius I. 627-638 Deposition and murder of Chosroes II, King of Persia, by his son and successor Kavadh II. 628 Kavadh II makes peace with the Byzantine Empire. War began in 603. After the defeat of the Persians by Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, prisoners are exchanged. Heraclius is given back the True Cross of Jesus Christ that the Persians had carried off. The True Cross is returned to the city of Jerusalem. 628 After the Persian king, Chosroes II is killed by Kavadh II, his own son, Heraclius and the Byzantine Empire regain all possessions that were previously lost to Persia. 628-630 Conquest of Yemen by the Mohammedans. 628 Founding of Lincoln Church. 628 St. Fiacra (d.670). Leaves his native Ireland and travels to France (Meaux). 628 Recovery of the city of Jerusalem from the Persians by Heraclius I, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 629 Persia (Sassanian Empire) lapses into a period of anarchy. 629-634 Death of Clothar II (Clotaire II). Dagobert I, his son, is made king of the whole Frankish Kingdom. 629 Dagobert I rules the Frankish Kingdom 629-639. Dagobert is advised by Arnulf, Bishop of Metz, and Pepin the Elder. Pope Honorius I. Sides with the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius in the controversy over the Monothelite heresy (Monothelitism). 629 Honorius will be anathematized many years after his death for this action. Hsüan Tsang (Yuan Chuang), Chinese Buddhist. Travels to Cambodia to study Buddhism. 629 Continued spread of the Monothelite heresy in Armenia, Syria, and other parts of the Byzantine Empire. 629 The True Cross is brought back to Constantinople and given to Byzantine Emperor Heraclius I. 630 Fall of Mecca to Mohammed. Jan. 630 Mohammed (570-632) returns to Mecca and leads an attack from Medina and storms into Mecca, the city of his birth. Mohammed and his Mohammedans successfully capture Mecca. Mecca becomes the center of Mohammedanism. Mohammed begins the conversion of Arabia to Mohammedanism. Mohammed (570-632) subdues many of the Arab tribes. 630-632 Church of “St. Agnese Fuori Le Mura” in Rome. c.630 Late example of an early Christian basilica. Expulsion of Olaf Tratelia from his native Sweden. 630 He founds a colony at Vermeland (Norway). Mohammed finishes the Koran, the book of the Mohammedans. 630 Mohammed (570-632) writes letters to all of the rulers of the world explaining the principles of his new religion, Mohammedanism. 630 He explains that everyone in the entire world must accept these doctrines. Brahmagupta (b.c.598). “Brahmasphuta siddhānta.” Mathematical writings concerning mensuration, early algebra, trigonometry, geometry, and diophantine equations. c.630 T’ang Dynasty court in China, receives its first Japanese embassy. 630 Sisenando. King of the Visigoths. 631-636 St. Braulio (d.651). Elected bishop of Saragossa, Spain. 631 He is strongly anti-Arianism, and encourages education and learning throughout the kingdom. Sigibert becomes King of East Anglia. 631 Sigibert is a Christian convert from paganism. Beginning of the conversion of East Anglia from paganism to Christianity (Roman Catholicism). 632 Mohammed marches into Mecca with 10,000 of his followers. 632 Establishes the tradition of “jihad” and pilgrimage. Mohammed finally completes his conquest of all of Arabia that he had begun in 623. Mohammed (570-632) dies at Medina. June 8, 632 At the time of his death, he is ruler of all Arabia. He is 62 years old at the time of his death. At the time of his death he has nine wives. He is buried at Medina. His tomb remains there to this day. Mohammed (570-632) is succeeded as leader of Mohammedanism by one of his many father-in-laws, Abu Bakr. 632 Abu Bakr becomes the first Mohammedan Caliph (“successor”). Abu Bakr rules 632-634. Medina becomes the seat of Abu Bakr, the first Caliph. Abu Bakr ends many Arab revolts and rules from the Mediterranean Sea to the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Yezdigird (Yazdigird) III becomes the last Sassanian ruler of Persia. 632 Yezdigird III rules 632-651. Georgios Pisides. “The Hexameron.” 632 Didactic poem on the Creation. St. Eligius (c.590-660). Founds and builds a monastery at Solignac. 632 Buddhism becomes the prevalent state religion in Tibet. 632 Beginning of the Mohammedan Wars fought against the Sassanian Persian Empire (633-651). 633 Battle of the River of Blood. May 633 Also called the Battle of Ullais (near Baghdad). 18,000 Moslems under Khālid ibn al-Walīd, kill over 70,000 Sassanid Persians (Persian Sassanian Empire) at the river of Ullais. Battle of Hira. 633 (Part of the Mohammedan conquest of Sassanian Persia). Moslem attack against the Persian empire of the Sassanians. A force of Arab horsemen under Khālid ibn al-Walīd, attack the city of Hira in Persia. The Moslems demand a tribute and then withdraw. The Persian ruler at this time is Rustam, the regent for the young Yazdegerd III (Sassanian). Christian Churches of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria are captured and turned into Mohammedan mosques. 633 Oswald, King of Northumbria and Bernecia. 633-642 Fourth Council of Toledo. 633 Death of St. Finbar at Cloyne. 633 St. Aidan. Irish Christian monk. Comes from Iona, at the invitation of King Oswald of Northumbria. St. Aidan works toward the conversion of Northumbria from paganism to Christianity. 633 Wars among the Saxon Kings in England. 633-654 Penda, the pagan King of Mercia, and Cadwallon of North Wales, invade the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. 633 Battle of Heathfield (Hatfield). Oct. 12, 633 Edwin, King of Northumbria, is defeated and killed in the Battle of Heathfield, with his son Osfrith. The forces of Penda, the pagan King of Mercia, and Cadwallon of North Wales defeat the Northumbrian army at the Battle of Hatfield. Return of paganism to Northumbria. 633 Moslem conquest of Syria begins (633-641). 633 Arrival of St. Birinus in West Saxony. 634 Battle of Heavenfield. 634 Oswald, the successor of Edwin, King of Northumbria, destroys Cadwallon (Caedwalla) and his Briton forces in the last pitched battle fought between the Britons and their and Saxon conquerors. Caedwalla is killed in battle. Death of Abu Bekr, Caliph (“the successor”). 634 Abu Bekr is succeeded by Omar I, the second caliph (634-644). Battle of Ajnadain. July 30, 634 The Moslem attack toward Syria is checked at Ajnadain (Jannabatain), by a Byzantine army led by Theodorus, brother of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius. Khālid ibn al-Walīd, the Moslem general, marches from Hira across the Syrian desert with reinforcements. The combined Arabian force of 45,000 moslems route the Byzantine army. Battle of Pella. Jan. 23, 635 Khālid ibn al-Walīd leads his Arabian horsemen toward Damascus. At Pella, in Palestine, the retreating Byzantine army makes a stand but is defeated. Khālid ibn al-Walīd moves on toward Damascus. Oswald, King of Northumbria, who had been baptized and educated at the monastery of Iona, wins back Northumbria from the pagans. 635 St. Aidan. Irish. Founds monastery on the island of Lindisfarne off the northeast coast of Northumberland. 635 St. Aidan is the first Bishop of Lindisfarne. Fall of Damascus to the Mohammedans. 635 Khālid ibn al-Walīd conquers Damascus. Damascus becomes the capital of Mohammedanism (to 750). Beginning of the conversion of the English Kingdom of Wessex from paganism to Christianity. 635 The conversion of Wessex to Christianity is due to St. Birinus, the Italian monk, who was made Bishop of Dorchester near Oxford. Conversion of Cynegils, King of Wessex, from paganism to Christianity. Cynegils was taught by St. Birinus. 635 Reception of Christian missionaries in China by the Chinese emperor T’ai-Tsung. 635 Battle of the Yarmuk River. August 20, 636 An Arab Mohammedan force of some 25,000 men defeats a Byzantine army of 50,000 men, on a tributary of the Jordan River. Byzantine dominance in Syria and Palestine is broken. Mohammedans continue the conquest of Syria (633-641) and Iraq (to 642) from the Byzantine Empire. Fall of Antioch to the Mohammedans. 636 Rotharis. King of the Lombards (Italy). 636-652 Beginning of the advancement of Anglo-Saxon culture and civilization with the conversion from the worship of pagan gods to Christianity. c.636 Chintilla. King of the Visigoths. 636-640 Churches are built at Glastonbury, St. Albans, and Winchester. 636 Castles are built at Conisborough, Castletown, etc. 636 Beginning of the appearance of the differentiation between the French and German languages in the Frankish Empire. c.636 Southern Irish Church submits to the Roman Catholic date of observing Easter and method of tonsure. 636 Persian fire worshippers settle in central India. 636 Death of St. Isidore of Seville (c.560-636). April 4, 636 Battle of Kadessia (Kadisiya). 637 Rustam, the regent of Yazdegerd III, takes an army of about 100,000 men across the Euphrates River to Kadisiya, in Iraq. Expecting the Persian attack, Caliph Omar I sends out 30,000 Arabian cavalry. Rustam is caught and beheaded. The Persian army disintegrates suffering terrible losses. Yazdegerd III, the last Sassanian ruler of Persia, is forced to abandon his capital at Ctesiphon to the Mohammedans. 637 Omar I, the moslem Caliph. The Mohammedans take and sack the rich Sassanian Persian capital city of Ctesiphon on the Tigris River. 637 Battle of Jalula. 637 The Mohammedan army of Sa’d ibn Abi-Waqqās rides north in pursuit of the Sassanians (Persians). At Jalula, Yazdegerd’s horsemen are decisively defeated. Fall of Jerusalem to the Arab Mohammedans. Sophronius, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, surrenders Jerusalem after a four month siege to Omar I, the second Caliph of the Mohammedans. 637 Apse mosaics in the Church of St. Agnese, Rome. 637 Birth of Hui-Nêng (also called Wei Lang or Wei Nang) (637-713). Chinese philosopher. 637 Death of St. Sophronius, Patriarch of Jerusalem. 638 Maximus the Confessor (580-662) takes his place. Maximus the Confessor is anti-Monothelitism (Monothelite heresy). Council of Toledo. 638 Condemnation of the Jews for helping the Moslems in Spain that are fighting against the Christians and Christianity. Heraclius’ attempt to resolve the controversy over Monophysitism gives support to the new heresy, Monotheletism, that had previously appeared around 610. 638 The Sassanian Empire of Persia appeals to China for help against the Mohammedan invaders. 638 Chintila. King of the Visigoths (636-640). Decrees that no one is to be permitted in the Visigothic kingdom who is not a Christian. 638-640 Jews are expelled. All of Palestine is now under Moslem rule. 638 Omar I, the second Moslem Caliph, sends an Arabian army under the general Amr ibn al-As, westward toward Egypt, which at this time is held by the Byzantine Empire. 639 Mohammedans begin the invasion and conquest of Egypt. Moslem conquest of Egypt begins 639. Egypt will finally fall in 642. Death of Dagobert I, King of the Franks. Jan. 639 Dagobert is the last Merovingian king to rule a united Frankish kingdom. Dagobert I united Austrasia, Neustrasia, and Aquitaine. Dagobert I is succeeded by Clovis II. Increasing importance of the Carolingian “mayors of the palace.” Clovis II, King of Neustria and Burgundy. Clovis II succeeds Dagobert I. Clovis II rules 639 to 657. 639 Mohammedan invasion of Armenia. 639 A second army of Mohammedans penetrates into and seizes Mesopotamia and enters Fars and Susiana. 639 St. Aidan begins his missionary work in Northumbria. 640 Pope John IV. 640-642 Syracuse Cathedral. Sicily. Begun. Integrates a Greek Doric temple of c.470 BC. 640 Amr ibn al-As, with an army of 4,000 horsemen, rides along the ancient road of conquest, seizes Pelusium and then Heliopolis. 640 At Heliopolis, the Egyptian priests still worship the Sun. Amr ibn al-As destroys the Byzantine army and permits the survivors to fall back on Alexandria, the greatest naval base in the world at that time. Entry of the Slavs into the Balkans. 640 The Slavs found the kingdom of Servia and Croatia. The Slavs invade Italy. c.640 They are repulsed. Chen Ch’üan. Chinese physician. First to note the symptoms of diabetes mellitus, including thirst and sweet urine. c.640 Tulga. King of the Visigoths. 640-641 Chindaswinth. King of the Visigoths. 641-653 Death of Heraclius I (b.575-d.641). 641 Heraclius was Byzantine Emperor from 610 to 641. He is succeeded by Constans II Pogonatus, his grandson. Rules 641-668. Constans II (630-668). Byzantine Emperor. 641-668 Constans II forms themes (provinces under military governors) in an attempt to resist the constant Mohammedan invasions. Battle of Nehavend (Nihawand). 641 Mohammedan armies under Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqāṣ, the general of the Caliph Omar I, completely defeat a Persian army of 100,000 men. Yazdegerd III flees for his life. The Mohammedan conquest of Persia is completed. St. Ouen (also Audoenus, Audoen) (c.610-684). Consecrated Archbishop of Rouen, France. 641 Encourages learning and education. Battle of al-Fustat. 641 The moslems make al-Fustat (later to become Old Cairo) a moslem city. The Byzantine army is forced to surrender. Peak of Armenian architecture under the Patriarch Nerses III. 641 Umar (Omar) ibn-al-Khattab, the second Caliph, orders general Amr ibn al’As to destroy all of the books that are contained in the great Library of Alexandria. The Arab Mohammedans, during their conquest of Egypt, destroy by fire the library and book copying center at Alexandria. 641 They burn down the great Library of Alexandria that contains over 300,000 books (Papyrus scrolls). End of the Alexandrian school, one of the centers of Western education, learning and culture since the first century AD. The Mohammedan armies complete the destruction of the Library of Alexandria and also the great Museum of Alexandria. The great Library formerly kept the writings of Euclid, Eratosthenes, Apollonius, Pappus, and countless other Greek and Roman writers. On the orders of the Byzantine Empress Martina, the Byzantines abandon the great city of Alexandria and set sail for Rhodes. 641 Amr ibn al-As enters into the third greatest city in Christendom. Battle of Maserfield. 642 The Mercians under King Penda again defeat the Northumbrians, this time at Maserfield (Oswestry) Oswald, King of Northumbria is killed in the battle. Oswiu. King of Northumbria and Bernecia. 642-670 Fall of Babylon to the Mohammedans. 642 Pope Theodore I. 642-649 Fredegar Scholasticus. 642 “Historia Francorum.” Arab Moslems complete the conquest of Egypt (begun in 639). 642 Egypt is lost to the Mohammedans. The Moslem rule of Egypt begins under the Arab caliphs of the Empire of the Caliphate. Moslem rule of Egypt: 642 to the present. Mosque of Amr is built at Cairo, Egypt. 642 Complete take over of the city of Alexandria, Egypt by the Mohammedans under Amru ibn al’As, the leader of the moslem invasionary forces. Sept. 642 Moslem Conquest of North Africa. 642-643 Following their rapid conquest of Egypt, the Moslems send an army westward along the African coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The moslem army, under Abdullah ibn-Sa’d (d.656), overruns the Pentapolis cities of Cyrenaica- Appolonia, Arsinoë, Berenice, Cyrene, and Ptolomäis. Teutonic conquest of Britain. 642-655 Mohammedan forces now stand at the borders of India. 643 Grimoald, son of Pepin, is the “mayor of the palace” in Austrasia. 643-656 Ambassadors from Persia and Constantinople visit China. 643 Famine in Japan kills thousands. 644 The Tang Chinese invade by land and sea what is now called Korea. 644 Murder of Caliph Omar ibn al-Khattab (the second Caliph). Othman I. Third Caliph (“successor”). 644-656 Othman I builds a fleet. 644-655 Rothari (Rotharis). The last Arian Lombard king. Codifies Lombard law. 644 Brief recapture of Alexandria by Byzantine fleet. 645 The people of Alexandria rise up against the Arab Mohammedans. Hsüan-tsang, Chinese philosopher. Returns from India to China with an account of Indian culture. 645 In Japan, period begins of imitation of all aspects of Chinese culture and way of life. 645 The Sutton Hoo ship burial (will be discovered in 1939) takes place in Suffolk, England. c.645 Death of St. Sulpitius (St. Sulpice). January 17, 646 The Church of St. Sulpice will be built later in Paris. Pope Theodore I. Declares the patriarch of Constantinople deposed due to his adherence to the Monothelite heresy (Monothelitism). 646 The Arab Moslems recapture Alexandria from the Byzantines. 646 Fall of Tripoli to the Arab Moslems. 647 Abdullah bin Sa’ad ibn Abi’l Sarh brings Libya under moslem rule. Over 10,000 people are killed in the process. Amru ibn al’As, has captured nearly all of northern Africa. 647 The Moslems enter into Armenia and Cappadocia and sack Caesarea Mazaca. 647 Constans II (b.630-d.668). Byzantine emperor. Issues the “Type of Constans,” an edict that makes it illegal to discuss in any matter, the subject of Christ possessing either one will or two wills. He declares that this controversial subject be forgotten. 648 Early Armenian Church is built at Mastara. c.648 Fall of Phrygia to the moslems. 648 St. Wilfrid (634-709). Enters the monastery of Lindisfarne. 648 St. Aidan is head. Marriage of King Clovis II to St. Bathildis. 649 They will later have three sons, each of whom will become a king. They are Clotaire III, Childeric II, and Theirry III. Death of St. John Climacus (c.569-649) on Mount Sinai. March 30, 649 Saint Martin I. Pope. 649-655 Pope Martin I. Calls the Lateran Council. 649 Final condemnation of Monothelitism (the Monothelite heresy). Constans II, Byzantine emperor, had attempted to stop all debates over it (“Type of Constans,” 648). Fall of Cyprus to the Mohammedans. 649 The Mohammedans launch their first invasion of the island of Cyprus with two fleets with a total of 1,700 ships. They murder most of the population. The rest are sold into slavery. Conquest of the so called Great Bulgarian Empire in Southern Russia by the Khazars. 650 St. Emmeramus. Founding of a Benedictine Monastery at Ratisbon. 650 Building of St. Martin’s Church, Canterbury, England. 650 The Caliph (“successor”) Othman puts the Koran into 114 chapters. 650 The first edition of the Koran is issued (651-652). Continued Mohammedan conquests in Asia. 650 Caedmon. First known English poet. “Beowulf.” c.650 Occupation of Bosnia by Croats and Serbs. 650 Bhartrihari. Buddhist. Writes 100 proverbs about love, life, and resignation. 650 Othman (Uthman), the third patriarchal Caliph, completes the conquest of Persia. 651 Murder of Yazdegerd III (ex-king), the last of the Sassanian rulers of Persia. Ctesiphon, the capital falls to the moslems. 651 Fall of the Sassanian (Persian) Empire. 651 End of the Dynasty of the Sassanides (226-651). Mohammedanism replaces Zoroastrianism in Persia. The Sassanid Dynasty was the last ancient Persian dynasty to rule prior to the Mohammedan conquest of Persia. Destruction of the Sassanian kingdom by the moslems. The moslems will rule this country from 651 until the present time. Saint Aidan dies in the church at Bamburgh. August 31, 651 Conversion of Cuthbert (the future St. Cuthbert). 651 Fall of Crete to the Mohammedans. 651 Abdulla bin Sa’ad bin Abi’l Sarh (d.656), as governor of Egypt, attacks the Christian kingdom of Nubia. 651-652 Benedictine Abbey at Stavelot, Belgium. 651 Saint Cuthbert (d.687). Admitted to the abbey of Melrose. c.651 Rothari, the last Arian King of the Lombards, dies. Aribert I. King of the Lombards. 652-661 Deusdedit of Canterbury (d.664). A South Saxon named Frithona, he becomes the first native Englishman (Anglo-Saxon) to be primate when he succeeds Honorius as the Archbishop of Canterbury. 653 Invasion of Syracuse, Sicily by Moslem forces. 652 Saint Wilfrid (634-709). Leaves England for Rome in the company of Saint Benedict Biscop (c.628-690). 653 He is away until 658. Saint Benedict Biscop (c.628-690). Original name: Biscop Baducing. Goes on pilgrimage to Rome with Saint Wilfrid. 653 Death of Chindaswinth. King of the Visigoths. 653 Recceswinth. King of the Visigoths. 653-670 Constans II, the Monothelete Byzantine emperor, sends an exarch to Rome, who arrests Pope Martin I in the Lateran Church. Martin I is anti-Monothelitism. 653 Pope Martin I is forcibly taken prisoner to Constantinople. After many indignities he will die in 656. The Mohammedans attack Cyprus for the second time. 653 Their first invasion was in 649. They plunder the island of Cyprus. Beginning of the fall of Armenia to the Mohammedans (to 661). 653 Conversion from paganism to Christianity of the Mercian prince Peada, son of King Penda the pagan king of Mercia. 653 St. Cedd (d.664). Is sent from Lindisfarne to evangelize the Middle Angles, when their King Peada converts from paganism to Christianity. 653 St. Philibert (c.608-c.685). Founds monastery at Jumièges in Neustria on land given to him by King Clovis II. 654 St. Cedd (d.664). Consecrated bishop of the East Saxons by Saint Finan (d.661) at Lindisfarne. 654 Battle of Mutah (located in present day Jordan). 654 A moslem army meets the Byzantine Christians and is defeated. The Mohammedans capture and plunder the island of Rhodes. 654 They destroy the “Colossus of Rhodes.” Battle of the Masts (off the coast of Lycia). Aka the Battle of Lycia. 655 A moslem fleet of two hundred ships under Abdullah bin Sa’ad bin Abi’l Sarh (d.656), governor of Egypt, defeats a Byzantine fleet of 500 ships under Constans II, the Monothelite emperor of the Byzantine Empire. The battle is fought off the coast of Anatolia off southern Asia Minor. Constantinople, the Byzantine capital is now in danger. It is only a civil war of successors among the moslems that postpones the next moslem attack on Constantinople for almost 20 years. Saint Eugene I (or St. Eugenius). Pope. 655-657 Birthplace: Rome. His predecessor, Martin I, is still alive, as an exile and prisoner of Constans II, the Monothelite Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Clothar (Lothair) III succeeds as the sole King of the Franks. 655 Clothar III rules 655-668. Founding of Benedictine Monastery at Peterborough (see 870). 655 Battle of Winwaed. 655 Penda, the heathen king of Mercia, and 30 other kings and princes are defeated and killed including Aethelhere, king of East Anglia who is succeeded by Ethewold. They are defeated by Oswiu, the brother of Oswald. Oswiu, the Christian King of Northumbria and Bernicia, rules Mercia. 655 St. Martin I (Pope) dies of neglect and ill treatment in the Crimea. He is the last of the Popes to die a martyr. September 16, 656 Murder of Othman, the third Caliph (=successor). 656 Othman, the leader of the Umayyads, is killed by the followers of Ali, Mohammed’s son-in-law and cousin. Othman, the third Caliph, is succeeded by Ali ibn Abi-Talib, Mohammed’s son-in-law and cousin. Ali is the fourth Caliph (“successor”). 656-661 Muawiya, leader of the Umayyads, opposes the succession of Ali as the fourth Caliph. 656 Outbreak of First Moslem Civil War (656-661). 656 Omayyads vs. Ali (Sunni vs Shi’a). Battle of the Camel (Basra). Dec. 9, 656 Victory of the caliph Ali ibn Abi-Talib over his opponents during the First Moslem Civil War. Ali, commanding 29,000 loyal troops attacks the larger rebel force. Ali bases his capital near Basra, in modern day Iraq. 656 Death of King Clovis II. 657 Founding of Whitby Monastery by Oswy (Oswiu), King of Northumbria. 657 Saint Vitalian. Pope. 657-672 Birthplace: Segni, Campania, Italy. Wulfhere, son of Penda, becomes King of Mercia. 658 Wulfhere rules 658-675. Muawiya (Moawiya). Omayyad governor of Syria. Revolts and seizes Egypt. 658 West Saxons conquer as far as the Parret. 658 St. Wilfrid (634-709). Returns to England and is made abbot of the monastery of Ripon, in Yorkshire. 658 Caedmon, the first known English poet, enters the Christian monastery at Whitby that was founded in 657. c.660 Founding of Christian Monastery at Jarrow in Northumbria, England. c.660 Death of St. Eligius (c.590-660). December 1, 660 Many aspects of Japanese culture are now modeled on those of China. c.660 Constans II, the Monothelite (Monothelitism) emperor of the Byzantine Empire, has Theodosius, his younger brother, killed. 660 Moawiya (also Muawiya) takes the Caliphate from Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, by force. 661 End of the First Moslem Civil War (656-661). 661 Moawiya I (an Omayyad) becomes the first Caliph of the Omayyad Dynasty of caliphs. Moawiya rules 661-680. Ali, the fourth Caliph, is murdered while planning to take back his position as caliph. 661 Muawiya (Moawiya) founds the Omayyad Dynasty (Caliphate or Caliphs of Damascus), which will hold the Caliphate until 750. 661 Omayyads become the caliphs. Muawiya (Moawiya) moves the capital of the moslem empire, which had been at Medina prior to the civil war, to Damascus in Syria. 661 The supporters of Ali are called Shiites. The Omayyad Dynasty will rule 661-750. The Omayyads rule Egypt as part of the Empire of the Caliphate. 661-750 St. Juan de Banos. A rare surviving Church of the Visigothic period. 661 Founding of Ripon Monastery in England. 661 St. Cuthbert (d.687) accompanies St. Eata (d.686) to Ripon Abbey. 661 Grimoald, Duke of Benevento, comes to aid Gondebert, but kills him instead, and seizes the Lombard crown. 662 Grimoald is King of the Lombards 662-671. Bishop Severus Sebokht of Syria. Mentions Hindu numerals as using only nine digits. 662 Hindu numerals are introduced in Syria. Death of St. Maximus the Confessor. 662 Constans II, the Monothelite Emperor of the Byzantine Empire, transfers the Byzantine court to Italy, while the Mohammedans ravage Asia Minor. This is the last visit to Rome by a Byzantine Emperor. 663-668 Childeric II. King of Austrasia. 663-674 Destruction of Paekche, in what is now called Korea, by T’ang Chinese forces. 663 Synod of Whitby. 664 Oswiu (Oswy), King of Northumbria, at the monastery of Whitby, accepts the Roman method of calculating the date of Easter. This method is strongly advocated by St. Wilfrid (634-709) who is present at the Synod. Oswiu, King of Northumbria, also decides in favor of the Roman ritual. Mohammedans begin another series of attacks on the city of Constantinople. 664 The Mohammedans invade Afghanistan. 664 Fall of Kabul. First Mohammedan invasion of India. 664 Outbreak of plague in Saxon England. 664 King Sigehere of Essex and his people revert back to heathenism. Ecgberht (Egbert) of Kent (and Surrey). 664-673 St. Chad (d.672). Chosen Bishop of York by Oswy (Oswiu), King of Northumbria. 664 Founding of St. Peter’s School, York, England. 664 Famine. Ireland.Thousands perish. 664 Saint Wilfrid (634-709) is made Bishop of York. 664 He is consecrated by St. Agilbert (d.685) in Francia (Gaul). Mohammedan invasion of the island of Sicily. 664-665 They murder much of the population of Sicily. Saint Benedict Biscop (Biscop Baducing) (c.628-690). Becomes a monk at Lérins and remains there for two years. 666 Scotland is struck by a “most grievous” famine. 667 Thousands perish. Death of St. Ildephonsus (607-667). January 23, 667 Constans II (b.630-d.668), the Monothelite emperor of the Byzantine Empire, is killed while he is in his bath. Sept. 668 He is 37 years old. The Byzantine court returns back to Constantinople. Constans II is succeeded by his three sons, Tiberius, Heraclius, and Pogonatus (Constantine IV). Constantine IV. Byzantine Emperor. 668-685 St. Agilbert (d.685). Made Bishop of Paris. 668 St. Theodore of Tarsus (602-690). Named Archbishop of Canterbury (668-690) by Pope St. Vitalian. 668 Childeric II (Merovingian Dynasty). King of Franks. 673-675 Attempt to unite Buddhism and Shintoism in Japan. 668 Ends in failure, since these two religions are totally different. Destruction and takeover of Koguryo (Korea) by Tang Chinese forces. 668 Korean refugees flee to Manchuria. Silla rules over the kingdom of Koguryo and Paekche. However, the Tang Chinese take control and are the actual overlords of the entire Korean peninsula. Both Manchuria and Korea are now under the control of the Tang Chinese ruler. St. Theodore of Tarsus (602-690), a Greek Catholic monk, appointed Archbishop of Canterbury (668-690), arrives in England. 669 Pope St. Vitalian assigns St. Benedict Biscop to accompany St. Theodore, the new Archbishop of Canterbury, and St. Aidan back to England. St. Theodore of Tarsus organizes the Roman Catholic Church in England. St. Theodore teaches Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. St. Wilfrid (634-709) is made Bishop of Northumbria, England. He chooses York as the center of his diocese. 669 France is struck by a serious famine. 669 Thousands perish. Famine. Ireland. 669 Thousands perish. The Mohammedans continue their attacks on North Africa. 670 By 670, the Arab Mohammedans have conquered all of North Africa west of what is now Algeria. 670 Caliph Mu’āwiya attacks Constantinople by sea. 674 The campaign will ultimately be unsuccessful and finally abandoned on the death of Mu’āwiya (680). Caedmon. English Christian author. Translates a very early English version of the Old Testament. c.670 Death of Oswiu, King of Northumbria. 670 Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria (670-685). Building of Brixworth Church in England. c.670 Death of Saint Fiacre. August 18, 670 Cross of St. Osyth (d.675) at Ely. 670 Silla kingdom is established in Korea. 670 Gains control over peninsula and forms first unified Korean government. Confucianism is introduced from China into Korea. The Silla Period lasts from 670 to 935. Saint Etheldreda (630-679). Is given the veil by St. Wilfred (at Coldingham Convent). 671 Garibald. King of the Lombards. 671-674 Wamba is King of the Visigoths. 672-680 Death of Pope St. Vitalian. January 27, 672 Pope Adeodatus II. 672-676 Death of St. Chad, Bishop of Lindisfarne. March 2, 672 St. Wilfrid (634-709). Refounds Ripon as a Benedictine monastery. 672 St. Theodore of Canterbury (b.602-d.690). Holds the first nation wide synod of the English Church at Hertford. 673 St. Etheldreda (630-679). She founds Ely Abbey on the island of Ely. 673 Hlothhere of Kent. 673-685 Continued siege of Constantinople by the Mohammedans. 674-677 The Arab Mohammedans besiege Constantinople without success. The attacks will continue for three years. The Mohammedan threat to the Byzantine Empire increases. 674-677 Constantinople withstands siege by Arab Mohammedans through 677. 30,000 total war dead by 677. First great siege of Constantinople by the Mohammedans. 674-677 The Arabs sail from Syria with over 50,000 Moslems. They land in Gallipoli, and lay siege to the city of Constantinople. The siege will continue intermittently for three years. The Byzantines use “Greek fire” against the invading forces. Half of the Mohammedan ships are destroyed. Half of the remaining Mohammedans return by ships. 30,000 Mohammedans walk across Anatolia back to Damascus. Most of the Moslem fleet is destroyed in a terrible storm. The Arabs on foot are continually attacked by the pursuing Byzantine army. The Jihad upon Christian Europe ends in failure. Arab Mohammedans eastward conquest reaches the Indus River, in what is now Pakistan. 674 St. Benedict Biscop (c.628-690). Founds a monastery at the mouth of the Wear River (Wearmouth), dedicated to St. Peter. 674 It is built of stone, with a lead roof and glass windows, all unknown in the buildings in England of that time. It is built by artisans that he brought over from France. St. Benedict Biscop builds the first stone churches England had seen. St. Wilfrid (634-709) begins the building of Hexham Abbey. 674 Bertharit. King of Lombards. 674-688 By 670, the Bulgars, under pressure from the Avars and Khazars, cross the Danube River. The Bulgars begin settling south of the Danube River, founding their first empire. c.675 Baptistery St. Jean, Poitiers. 675 Wulfhere, King of Mercia, dies. 675 He is succeeded by his brother Aethelred (Ethelred), dies 704. Lombard kings rule in Farentum (Apulia), Italy. 675 Continued Mohammedan attack on the city of Constantinople. Last of the sea attacks by Muawiya on Constantinople. 675 Unsuccessful attack on Thessalonica by the Slavs. 675-681 Martyrdom of St. Osyth. 675 She is killed in a raid by heathen Danish Vikings. Murder of Childeric II of the Franks. Leads to civil war and anarchy in the Frankish kingdom. 675 Dagobert II. King of Franks. 675-678 Thierry III. King of Franks. 675-691 Ethelred of Mercia ravages Kent. 676 St. Cuthbert. Catholic English monk. Retires to Farne Island (near Lindisfarne) to live as a hermit. 676 Pope Donus. 676-678 Byzantines use “Greek fire” against the besieging moslem fleet at Syllaeum. 677 Constantinople is saved from the first moslem siege. 677 The moslems will eventually destroy the city in 1453. St. Willibrord (b.658), Northumbrian, goes to Ireland. 677 He spends twelve years in Ireland studying at Irish monasteries. Huai Jang (Hui-chung). Chinese Ch’an Buddhism. c.677-744 Student of Hui Neng. A quarrel breaks out between St. Wilfrid and Egfrith, King of Northumbria. Wilfrid is expelled from his bishopric by King Egfrith. Wilfrid sets out for Rome to appeal to the pope. He travels by way of Frisia (modern day Netherlands). 678 St. Wilfrid of York (634-709). Mission in Frisia (the modern day Netherlands). 678 Frisia is completely heathen at the time. St. Eata (d.686). Appointed Bishop of Lindisfarne. 678 Later exchanges sees with St. Cuthbert and becomes bishop of Hexham. Saint Agatho (or St. Agathonus). Pope. 678-681 Birthplace: Sicily. St. Theodore of Canterbury (b.602-d.690). Acts as peacemaker between King Egfrid and King Ethelred. 679 Ends their war and establishes a peace between the two kings for years. Bulgars under Isperikh (Asparuhk) defeat a Byzantine force and settle between the Balkan mountains and the Danube River. 679 Founding of the First Bulgarian Empire. 679 Between the Danube River and the Balkan Mountains by Khan Asparuhk. The First Kingdom of the Bulgarians will last from 679 to 1018 when it will once again become a Byzantine province. Pepin of Heristal (d.714). Becomes “mayor of the palace” of the Frankish kingdom of Austrasia. 680 Sixth General Church Council. Nov. 7, 680-Sept. 16, 681 A council is held for the third time at Constantinople. Condemns the heretical doctrine of Monothelitism (the Monothelite Heresy). The Christian position is accepted. Byzantine emperor deposes the patriarch of Constantinople. Elects an anti-Monothelite patriarchy. Condemnation of Monophysitism is reaffirmed. End of the schism. Famine follows three years of drought in England. 680 Thousands perish. Church council at Hatfield, England. 680 Condemns Monophysitism (the Monophysitic heresy). Death of St. Bathildis. Jan. 30, 680 Wamba, the King of the Visigoths, becomes a Christian monk. 680 Ervigius (Euric). King of the Visigoths. 680-687 Pogonatus now rules alone in Constantinople as Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV. 680-685 St. Wilfrid (634-709) is upheld by the Pope St. Agatho. Wilfrid returns back to Northumbria with a papal ruling in his favor. 680 King Ecgfrith refuses to accept the papal decision of St. Agatho and imprisons St. Wilfrid (until 681). Death of Muawiya I, Caliph of the house of Umayya (Umayyads). 680 Yazid I succeeds to the caliphate as successor to his father Muawiya. Yazid I rules 680-683. al-Hussain, son of Ali, is chosen by one group of moslems to be the ruler of Islam. 680 Battle of Karbalā (Kerbala). October 10, 680 al-Hussain, the son of Ali, and a small group of his followers are massacred by the Umayyad supporters of Yazid I at the Battle of Karbalā. al-Hussain is beheaded at Karbalā. Causes great opposition to Umayyad rule. This defeat splits off the Shiite branch of Islam, which commemorates al-Hussain’s death each year. Moslem Civil War. 680-683 Rival claimants fight for the caliphate. The Shi’ites are supporters of Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed. Their enemies are the Sunni sect. The struggle for leadership amongst the moslems leads to the permanent division of Islam into Sunni and Shi’ite Moslems. 680 St. Julian of Toledo (d.690). Named Archbishop of Toledo. 680 King Ecgfrith of Northumbria releases St. Wilfrid (634-709) from prison only on the condition that he leave the kingdom. 681 This is the second exile of St. Wilfrid: 681-686. St. Wilfrid (634-709) goes to Sussex. 681-686 Wilfrid converts the South Saxons (Sussex) from paganism to Christianity. Founds monastery at Selsey in Sussex. Gloucester Abbey founded. 681 Earthquake. Tosa, Japan. 681 Thousands perish. Saint Leo II. Pope. 682-683 Birthplace: Sicily. Saint Benedict Biscop (c.628-690). Builds a second monastery, six miles away from Wearmouth, on the Tyne River, dedicated to Saint Paul. He calls it Jarrow. 682 Mohammedans overrun the coast of North Africa. 682 Occupy Tripoli, Tangiers, and Carthage. Last Byzantine bases in North Africa have fallen to the Mohammedans. Death of Saint (Pope) Leo II. June 28, 683 Famine. Syria. Thousands perish. 683 Famine. Libya. Thousands perish. 683 Yazid I, the Umayyad Caliph, dies unexpectedly. 683 Muawiya II ibn Yazid. Third Umayyad caliph. 683-684 Rules for only six months. Second Moslem Civil War (683-692). 683 Caused when Abd Allah ibn az-Zubayr seeks the caliphate after the unexpected death of Yazid I. Saint Benedict II. Pope. 684-685 Birthplace: Rome. Marwan I becomes Umayyad Caliph. 684 Rules 684-685. Centwine, King of Wessex, is deposed. 685 He is succeeded by Ceadwalla. St. Cuthbert (d.687). Against his will, he is elected bishop of Hexham. 685 St. Cuthbert (d.687). Bishop of Lindisfarne. 685-687 Founding of Winchester Cathedral. England. 685 Pope John V. Syrian. 685-686 “Ravenna Cosmography.” c.685 An anonymous Italian MS. listing all of the continents, rivers, nations, cities, and towns of the known world up to that time. Constantine IV dies. Justinian II Rhinotmetus, becomes Byzantine Emperor. First part of his reign. Second reign: 705-711. 685-695 Justinian II, Byzantine Emperor, breaks the truce with the Mohammedans and is defeated. He is compelled to relinquish Armenia. 685 Battle of Nechtansmere. 685 Defeat of the Northumbrians by the Picts under King Bruide. The Picts halt the Northumbrian expansion northward into Scotland, stopping them from gaining control over Scotland. Scotland begins to develop independently of England. Death of Egfrith, King of Northumbria. 685 Egfrith is defeated and killed at the Battle of Nectansmere. Northumbrian domination of England is ended. Aldfrith is King of Northumbria. 685-704 Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan succeeds as the tenth caliph. 685 Caliph: 685-705. Conversion from paganism to Christianity of Sussex. Sussex is the last heathen kingdom in England. 686 Pope Conon. Sicilian. 686-687 St. Theodore of Canterbury (602-690). Requests that Aldfrith, King of Northumbria, and Ecgfrith’s successor, recall St. Wilfrid from exile and restore him to Ripon. 686 St. Wilfrid is reconciled with Ecgfrith’s successor Aldfrith, and is allowed to return to York from his second exile. St. Julian of Toledo, leader of the Church in Spain, writes a work to counter the persistent claims of the Jews that Jesus Christ is not the Messiah, and that God the Father and God the Son are not one. 686 Death of St. Cuthbert on Farne Island, Northumbria. March 20, 687 Battle of Tertry. 687 Pepin the Younger of Héristal (the father of Charles Martel), the “Mayor of the Palace” of Austrasia and the Austrasians defeats Thierry III, the “mayor of the palace” of Neustria and the Neustrians at Tertry. The Austrasians capture Thierry III of Neustria. Pepin d’Héristal (d.714). Reunites Austrasia and Neustria. 687 Pepin of Héristal becomes the ruler of all of the Frankish kingdoms except for Aquitaine. Establishes Carolingian hegemony. Pepin is the first of the Carolingian Mayors of the Palace. Pepin is Mayor of the Palace 687-714. Saint Sergius I. Pope. 687-701 Birthplace: Palermo, Sicily. Ergica. King of the Visigoths. 687-702 Caedwalla, King of the West Saxons. Abdicates and leaves England for Rome in order to be baptized. 688 Ine becomes King of Wessex. Ine rules 688-726. Ine (d.726). King of Wessex. 688-726 Subjugation of Essex and part of Kent by Ine, the King of Wessex. 688 Birth of Charles Martel (the “Hammer”) (688-741). 688 Charles Martel is the son of Pepin of Héristal (d.714). Cunibert. King of Lombards. 688-700 Justinian II, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire, defeats the Slavs in Thrace. 689 Death of Caedwalla. April 20, 689 Caedwalla is baptized by Pope Sergius at Rome. Seven nights later he dies in his baptismal vestments. He is 30 years old. Death of St. Benedict Biscop (c.628-690). Jan. 12, 690 Death of St. Theodore of Canterbury (b.602-d.690). Sept. 19, 690 Wihtred. King of Kent. 690-725 St. Willibrord (b.658-739). Sets off for the continent. He goes to Friesland with eleven English monks as missionaries in order to convert the heathens of Friesland. 690 Clovis III (son of Thierry III). King of all the Franks. 691-695 Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, the tenth caliph. Builds the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. 691-692 Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Old City of Jerusalem. 691-694 Abd Allah ibn az-Zubayr, rival caliph in Arabia, is defeated and killed in battle at Mecca, ending the Moslem Civil War (683-692). 692 Rise of Abd al-Malik as leader of the Moslems. Quarrel breaks out between St. Wilfrid and Aldfrith King of Northumbria. 692 Wilfrid goes into exile once again. Goes to Mercia where king Ethelred requests that Wilfrid minister the vacant see of Litchfield. Quinisext Council at Constantinople. 692 (aka Council of Trullo). Council is convened by Justinian II, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Pope Sergius I refuses to recognize its canons due to the many erroneous doctrines that are presented by this council. Battle of Sevastopolis (Sebastopol). 692 Byzantine troops of Justinian II are crushed by the Mohammedans at Sevastopolis, Cilicia. Berthwald (Brihtwold) becomes the first English Archbishop of Canterbury (693-731). 693 He is the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury. Fall of Armenia to the Mohammedans. 693 The Arabs overrun Armenia. Mohammedan rule is established in Armenia (693-862). Famine. England. Thousands perish. 695-700 Famine. Ireland. Thousands perish. 695-700 Justinian II, the Emperor of the Byzantine Empire, is deposed by Leontius and exiled to Crimea. 695 Justinian II is succeeded by his rival Leontius (rules 695-698). The Byzantine Empire enters into two decades of anarchy. Childebert III. King of all the Franks. 695-711 Anti-Jewish movement in Spain. 695 Law code of Wihtred, King of Kent. 695 St. Willibrord (658-739), the “Apostle of the Frisians”. Ordained Bishop of the Frisians (Netherlands) by Pope Sergius I. 695 Hui-Nêng is declared the Sixth Patriarch of Ch’an Buddhism in China. 696 With the death of Hui-Nêng, the institution of the Patriarchate is ended. Paoluccio Anafesto becomes the first Doge (chief official) of Venice. Venice begins its rise to power. 697 The Doge of Venice will be the chief magistrate from 697 until 1797. Northern Irish Church submits and accepts Roman Catholicism. 697 St. Willibrord (658-739), the “Apostle of the Frisians”. Appointed Bishop of Utrecht by Pepin of Hérestal. 697 St. Willibrord had been previously trained in the monasteries of Ireland. Seizure and total destruction of Carthage by the Mohammedans. Carthage falls to the Moslems ending Byzantine rule in North Africa. 698 Mohammedans (Umayyads) complete the conquest of Byzantine North Africa (begun in 647). 698 St. Rupert (aka Hrodbert). Frankish. Founds the Monastery of St. Peter’s in Salzberg Austria. 698 St. Willibrord (658-739), Bishop of Utrecht. Discovers Heligoland. 698 Byzantine Emperor Leontius is deposed by revolt. 698 Tiberius III Apsimar, Byzantine Emperor (698-705). Bewcastle Cross. Cumbria, England. 698 The Lindisfarne Gospels. 698 Illuminated monastic manuscripts, produced in Northumbria, England. Eighth Century St. Willibrord (658-739), Anglo-Saxon priest. The first Christian missionary to enter into pagan Denmark. c.700 The official language of the Byzantine Empire becomes Greek, instead of Latin. 700 The Psalms. Translation into the Anglo-Saxon language. 700 Major kingdoms in the West. 700 The Visigothic kingdom in Spain, the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in Britain, the Frankish kingdom in Gaul and Germany, the Lombard kingdom in Italy, and the Byzantine Empire which still retains footholds in Italy in the regions of Rome and Ravenna. In England, churches are being made of stone instead of wood. 700 Begun by St. Benedict Biscop in 674. St. Mary Pamakaristos, Constantinople. c.700 Structure built on the typical Byzantine plan of the Greek cross. St. Jean’s Church at Poitiers, France. 700 This is a rare survivor of the seventh century Merovingian period. It is a basilican style church. Conquest of Algiers (Tunis) by the Moslems. 700 Moslems complete the conquest of northern Africa, which will become their base for the future invasions of Europe. 700 Christianity in North Africa is virtually exterminated by the Mohammedans. Beowulf. ca.700-730 This is the oldest extant English epic poem. It is composed in Old English. Thuringia becomes part of the Frankish kingdom. 700 Mayan temples are built at Tikal, in the jungles of Guatemala. c.700 Buddhism begins to be gradually driven out of India by Hinduism. 700 Pope John VI. 701-705 Codification of Japanese law. The Mikado becomes the sole proprietor of all land. 701-1192 Aribert II. King of Lombards. 701-712 Witiza. King of the Visigoths. 702-709 Arab Mohammedans occupy Ethiopian ports. 702 Ethiopians attack Arab ships in the Red Sea. The Mohammedans make Arabic the official language of Egypt replacing the Coptic language. 702 Egyptians must now speak Arabic. Famine of long duration in Italy. 703-706 Thousands perish. St. Wilfrid (634-709). After being exiled since 692, St. Wilfrid sets off once again to appeal to the Pope at Rome. 703 Death of St. Adamnan (625-704) in Ireland. 704 Attributed to him are a “Life of St. Columba of Iona”, a mystic poem called “Adamnan’s Vision,” and one of the earliest European accounts of the Holy Land, “De Locis Sancti.” Duke Hetan II. Builds a circular church at Marienberg near Würzburg. 705 Justinian II becomes Byzantine Emperor once again. 705 Justinian II rules 705-711 (his second reign). Osred. King of Northumbria. 705-716 Aldfrith, King of Northumbria, dies, but first repents of all of his past actions against St. Wilfrid. 705 St. Wilfrid returns to Northumbria, where Osred, Aldfrith’s successor is willing to receive him, but not restore him to the see of York. John VII. Pope. 705-707 Wells Cathedral is founded. 705 Walid I. Umayyad Caliph. 705-715 The Ummayad Mosque of Damascus, Syria. 705-715 Built on the site of an ancient Roman temple. St. Hubert (d.727). Succeeds St. Lambert (d.705) as Bishop of Liège. 705-727 St. Willibrord (658-739) is helped by Pepin of Héristal to found the Monastery of Efternach in what is now called Luxemburg. 706 Fall of Tangiers to the Mohammedans. 707 Pope Constantine I. Syrian. 708-715 Constantine I is the last Pope to visit the Byzantine emperor in Constantinople. Ceolred becomes King of Mercia. 709 Coenred and Offa journey to Rome (709). Coenred remains in Rome until his death. Death of St. Wilfrid (634-709) in Northumbria, England. 709 Oratory at Mont Saint-Michel. 709 Death of St. Aldhelm of Malmesbury (c.639-709). May 25, 709 Fall of Ceuta to the Mohammedans. 709 Roderic, the last King of the Visigoths in Spain. 709-711 Under his reign the Visigothic kingdom in Spain will be destroyed by the Moslems in the year 711. Pepin of Héristal (d.714) subdues the Alamanni. 709-710 Ma-Tsu (also Tao-I) of Chiang Hsi (Kiangsi) China. 709-788 Chinese Ch’an Buddhism. The most influential of the Sixth Patriarch’s indirect successors. Death of St. Bonitus (623-710). January 15, 710 Also known as Bonet. Dies at Lyons. During his life, Bonitus was the fourth successor of St. Benedict of Nursia as abbot of Monte Casino, Italy. Advance of the Bulgarians toward Constantinople. 710 Death of St. Adrian in Canterbury. Jan. 9, 710 China refuses to help the Kashgarians against the Arab moslems. 710 Ine. King of Wessex. Wars with the Britons of Cornwall. 710 Justinian II. Byzantine Emperor. 710 Confirms papal privileges. The Mohammedans assemble over 12,000 men in Tangiers. The fleet sails for Spain in April 711. 711 They land at present day Gibraltar. Destruction of the Visigothic kingdom in Spain. July 711 Tariq Ziyad (Berber), Arab leader of the Arab and Berber Mohammedan army, crosses the Straits of Gibraltar and invades Spain from North Africa. Battle of Rio Barbate. July 19, 711 Xeres de la Frontera. Between 15,000 Visigoth defenders under Roderic, King of the Visigoths, and 12,000 Mohammedans plus African auxiliaries under Tariq. In a great battle, Tariq destroys the Visigothic army under Roderic, the last King of the Visigoths. Roderic is drowned crossing the Guadalquivir River. The Visigothic kingdom in Spain vanishes from history. Mohammedan invaders take Cordoba, Granada, and the Visigothic capital Toledo largely with the compliance of the Jews in Spain. 711 Spain becomes a Moslem state. Beginning of Mohammedan rule in Spain. 711 The Mohammedans will rule Spain from 711 until 1492. Beginning of Spanish-Mohammedan Wars (711-1492). 711 These wars are the “Reconquista” from 711 until 1492. Mohammedan conquest of Spain. 711-714 300,000 total war dead. Dagobert III. King of all the Franks. 711-716 Murder of Justinian II by Philip Bardanes, who ascends the Byzantine throne as Emperor Philippicus (rules 711-713). 711 In return for helping the Mohammedans in the conquest of Spain, the Spanish Jews are freed by the Arab Mohammedans. 711 Musa, lands at Algeciras with over 18,000 Mohammedans. Musa captures Carmona, Midina Sidonia. 712 Musa captures Seville after a siege of a few months. Liutprand. King of the Lombards. 712-744 Height of the Lombard Kingdom in Northern Italy. Pope Constantine I. Opposes the Byzantine emperor Philippicus Bardanes on the question of the Monothelite heresy (Monothelitism). 712 The Mohammedans cross the Pyrenees mountains and briefly hold the French coast of the Mediterranean Sea. 712 Famine throughout Wales. 712 Thousands perish. Constantinople is threatened by the Bulgars. 712 Fall of Samarkand to a Moslem army under Abu Qasim al-Thagafi. 712 Moslem state is established in Sind (India) by Mohammed ibn Kasim. 712 Moslem conquest of the Indus Valley. First Moslem conquests in India during the Islamic wars of conquest. 712-745 Kojiki (= records of ancient matters). Book of Shinto is completed. 712 It is the earliest known Japanese book. A historical chronicle, it is written in Chinese. Musa takes Mérida in Spain. June 1, 713 Tarik and Musa complete the moslem conquest of Spain. 713-714 Some Christians maintain themselves in the Asturias and Navarre. Anastasius II. Byzantine Emperor. 713-716 Ming Huang. Emperor of China. 713-756 Aldwulf, King of East Anglia dies. He is succeeded by Alfwold. 713 Charles Martel (688-741), Frankish ruler, son of Pepin of Héristal (d.714), and grandfather of Charlemagne. Is made Mayor of the Palace. 714-741 St. Willibrord (658-739). Baptizes Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel. 714 Founding of the Benedictine Abbey of Reichenau at Lake Constance. 714 Radbod, the pagan leader of Lower Friesland, regains the territory that Pepin of Héristal had conquered earlier. 715 The Mohammedan empire, under Caliph Walid I, now extends from the Pyrenees to China. 715 Its capital is at Damascus. Saint Gregory II. Pope. 715-731 Birthplace: Rome. Ordination of Saint Boniface (c.680-754). c.715 St. Gregory II (Pope). Dispatches St. Boniface as missionary to Germany (Frisia). 715 Ine, King of the West Saxons. Defeats Ceolred of Mercia at Wanborough. 715 Suleiman ibn Abd al Malik becomes Caliph (715-718). 715 Suleiman is son of Walid I. Suleiman plans (715-716) a vast new expedition by land and sea to invade and take over the city of Constantinople. Theodosius III. Byzantine Emperor. 716-717 Winfrith, the future St. Boniface, Benedictine monk, sets sail for Frisia. 716 He arrives on the continent, and begins his missionary activities in pagan Frisia (the present day Netherlands). He is unsuccessful in this first attempt. Wynfrith returns home. Osred, King of Northumbria, is killed. He is succeeded by Cenred. 716 Ceolred, King of Mercia, dies. 716 Ethelbald. King of Mercia. Controls all of England except for Northumbria. 716-757 Ethelbald is the son of Alweo, grandnephew of Penda, and successor of Ceolred. Charles Martel (688-741). Son of Pepin of Héristal (d.714). Conquers the Neustrians. 716-717 Conquest of Lisbon, Portugal by the Mohammedans. 716 Chilperic II. King of Franks. 716-721 Accession of Leo III, the Isaurian, Byzantine Emperor. 717 Leo III is the first of the Iconoclast Emperors of the Byzantine Empire. Leo III, the Isaurian, reigns 717-741. Charles Martel (688-741). Becomes “mayor of the palace” (chief minister) in Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy reuniting the Frankish kingdom. 717 Siege of Constantinople (717-718). 717 Umayyads (Arabian Mohammedans) prepare to launch their second major attack on the city of Constantinople. Siege of Constantinople by the Mohammedans is under the Caliph Suleiman, the son and successor of Walid I. 717-718 The Mohammedans cross the Hellespont and besiege Constantinople by both land and sea. 120,000 Mohammedans, under Maslama (Moslemah), brother of the Caliph Suleiman, advance on Constantinople. 717 Mohammedans on 1800 ships join the blockading force. Leo III destroys a large number of the Mohammedans in their ships by using his “fireships.” For 13 months, Leo III, the Byzantine Emperor, successfully defends Constantinople from the Mohammedan invaders. 717-718 Emperor Leo III successfully destroys the large Arab fleet. Caliph Suleiman dies (718). The Mohammedans withdraw. Suleiman’s attempt to conquer Constantinople does not succeed. Constantinople survives the second Mohammedan siege. When winter comes, thousands of Mohammedans die from freezing cold. Lifting of the Siege of Constantinople (717-718) by the Mohammedans. 718 End of the Moslem-Byzantine Wars of 717-718. 718 40,000 total war dead. The Caliph Suleiman reacts to the defeat of the Mohammedans at Constantinople, by going on a great eating spree of eggs, figs, and bone marrow. He dies of severe indigestion. 718 Famine brings about mass starvation and suffering in Syria. Thousands perish. 718 The Mohammedans cross the Pyrenees in order to prepare to attack the land of the Franks. 718 Saint Boniface (c.680-754). Having earlier (716) left and then returned back to his place of birth, Wessex, a kingdom in the south of England, journeys to Rome with a group of companions. 718 In 719, Wynfrith receives a missionary commission from Pope Gregory II, to evangelize the heathens in Germany. It is on this occasion that he receives his new name (he was originally baptized Wynfrith) after the early Roman martyr Boniface. Cenred, King of Northumbria, dies. 718 He is succeeded by Osric, son of King Aldfrith. Umar II. Omayyad Caliph. 718-720 Umar II begins his rule by ordering that all Christians in his domain who refuse to reject Christ and become Mohammedans be killed (718). Pelayo. Visigothic prince. Founds the Christian kingdom of the Asturias in the mountains in the extreme northern part of Spain. The Mohammedans now hold all of the rest of Spain and Portugal. 718 They now advance northwards. Pelayo is proclaimed king, and establishes his capital at Cangas de Oni. Pelayo rules 718-737. 718 He will rule until his death in 737. The Mohammedans have conquered all of Spain except for the extreme northern part of Spain, where Christians established the kingdom of Asturias (718). 718 Battle of Covadonga. 718 Christians defeat the Moslems in Spain at the Battle of Covadonga. St. Boniface (c.680-754) now returns back to Frisia. 719 Radbod, the pagan leader of Lower Friesland, dies. 719 First Mohammedan inroad into Gaul. 719 Saint Boniface (c.680-754). On learning of the death of the pagan leader Radbod, joins St. Willibrord (658-739) at Utrecht. 719 Begins the conversion of the pagans in Germany east of the Rhine River to Christianity. St. Boniface works with St. Willibrord for three years until 722. Charles Martel (son of Pepin of Héristal). Subdues Aquitaine. 720 Charles Martel (688-741), son of Pepin of Héristal. Begins to strengthen his hold on the Frankish kingdom. c.720 Beginning of the invasion of France by the Mohammedans from Spain (720-732). 720 The moslems seize what was the Visigothic kingdom of Septimania. 720 The Mohammedans settle in Syria. 720 Rebuilding of Glastonbury Abbey by Ine, King of Wessex. 720 Theodoric IV. King of the Franks. 720 Yezid II. Caliph. 720-724 Bede (c.672-735). “Commentary on the Book of Genesis”. c.720 Hui Hai (Ta Chih) of Pai Chang Mountain. Also called Po Chang. Chinese Ch’an Buddhism. Follower of Ma Tsu. 720-814 The Mohammedan armies under Al-Semah ibn Malik having conquered Spain, now cross the Pyrenees from Spain. They enter into France and seize Narbonne. They murder half of the population. Al Semah ibn Malik makes his capital at Narbonne. 721 They sack the great monasteries of southern France. Eudes (Odo), Duke of Aquitaine. The Mohammedans invading France, are several times defeated and driven back by Eudes, Duke of Aquitaine. 721-729 The Mohammedans continue their northward march from Spain into France. 721 They reach as far as Poitiers. Battle of Toulouse. June 9, 721 Al Semah ibn Malik marches west to Toulouse. Al Semah and is killed fighting the forces of Eudes, the Duke of Aquitaine. 721 Abd-er-Rahman, the second in command, takes over and leads the remaining Mohammedans back into Spain. Thierry IV. King of Franks. 721-737 St. Boniface (c.680-754). Summoned by Pope Gregory II, he journeys back to Rome. Nov. 722 Takes an oath of obedience and is consecrated Bishop for Germany. Leo III, the Isaurian. Iconoclastic Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Outlaws Judaism in the Byzantine Empire. 722 Fall of Sardinia to the Mohammedans. 723 St. Boniface leaves Rome, and returns to Germany, by crossing the Alps. St. Boniface visits Charles Martel (son of Pepin of Héristal) in Francia. 723 St. Boniface (c.680-754). Journeys to Hesse and Thuringia to evangelize the untouched heathen. St. Boniface wins over the chieftains there, and baptizes large numbers of converts. 723 St. Pirminus (also Pirmin) (d.753). Founds the Benedictine monastery of Reichenau on an island in Lake Constance. 724 A Mohammedan army, led by Ambissa, the new emir of Spain, arrives at Narbonne, and takes Carcassonne and Nimes. 724 Ambissa is killed and the army returns back into Spain. Hisham. Umayyad Caliph. 724-743 Mohammedan attacks devastate Gujarat, India. 724-743 Death of St. Giles. Born in Athens, Greece. Sept. 1, 725 Ch’ang-an, the capital of China, is the largest city in the world. Constantinople is the second largest city. 725 Civil Wars trouble the Moslem Empire. Descendants of Mohammed’s uncle, Abbas, begin to press claims to the Caliphate. c.725 St. Boniface (c.680-754). Fells the famous Donar oak tree near Fritzlar, Hesse, attacking the old Germanic heathen beliefs. 725 Arab Mohammedans continue to ravage southern France. 725 Charles Martel (688-741). Crosses the Rhine River and conquers Bavaria. 725 Copts in Egypt rebel against Mohammedan rule. 725 Leo III, the Isaurian, Byzantine Emperor (717-741). First of the so-called Iconoclast emperors of the Byzantine Empire. Iconoclastic Edict of 726 forbids all images, paintings, icons, etc. 726 Beginning of the Iconoclastic movement in the Byzantine Empire. Opposition to the use of images in Byzantine churches. Leo III orders the destruction of all icons throughout the Byzantine Empire. Results of the “Edict of 726”: - Immediate popular riot when soldiers destroy the image of Jesus Christ above the entrance to the palace. - The proclamation of a rival Byzantine emperor. - Rebellion in the imperial cities throughout Italy. Pope Gregory II. Explains to Leo III, the Byzantine emperor, that the crucifix, relics, paintings, sculpture, and images are but symbols of veneration and not objects of worship. 726 Leo III, the Isaurian. Enraged by the explanations of Pope Gregory II, and denial of idol worship, Leo III now issues his Edict on Iconoclasm. Edicts forbidding images in the Eastern Empire. 726 Edicts order the destruction of all images, statues, crucifixes, paintings, and pictures in churches. Leo III outlaws all images in the Roman Catholic Church. Pope Gregory II. Refuses to publish the decree on Iconoclasm issued by Leo III, the Isaurian. Gregory II explains the errors of Iconoclasm. 726 Controversy over the use of images, between Pope Gregory II and the iconoclastic Byzantine Emperor Leo III, the Isaurian. 726 Iconoclastic schism: 726-787 and then once again 815-843. Leo III, the Isaurian (iconoclast), orders desecration of all churches. 726 All of the emblems of Christianity are publicly burned. Libraries of the Church are destroyed. Walls decorated with paintings are destroyed. Note: Leo III had been previously educated by the Paulician heretical sect, which held similar iconoclastic views. Leo III, the Iconoclast. Sends an army to Ravenna in northeast Italy in order to enforce his edict concerning Iconoclasm. 726 Pope Gregory II. Assembles an armed force in order to protect both his refusal to destroy statues and paintings in all churches and his secular rule in Italy. 726 After a sharp struggle the Byzantines are driven back to their ships and forced to re-embark back to Constantinople. Beginning of the eighth century exodus of anti-iconoclastic Greek monks and scholars from Constantinople to Calabria, Italy. 726 Ine, King of Wessex, dies while he is at Rome. 726 He is succeeded by Ethelheard. St. John Damascene (c.675-c.749). The last of the Greek Fathers, called Chrysorrhoas, “Stream of Gold”, because of his powerful speaking ability. Ordained. 726 Death of St. Hubert. May 30, 727 Pope Gregory II. Severely rebukes Byzantine Emperor Leo the Isaurian, at a synod in Rome. Gregory II condemns the Iconoclastic Heresy (Iconoclasm). 727 Conquest of Georgia on the Black Sea by the Mohammedans. 727-733 The Lombards briefly take the city of Ravenna. 728 Recaptured by exarch in 729. St. Boniface (c.680-754). Founds Murbach Monastery. 728 Charles Martel (688-741). Conquers the Alemanni. 728-730 Osric, King of Northumbria, dies. 728 He is succeeded by Ceolwulf. Ceolwulf of Northumbria rules 729-737. Angus Mac Fergus. Pictish king. Conquers Dalriada and Strathclyde in Scotland. 730 Leo III, Byzantine Emperor. Deposes the anti-Iconclast patriarch of Constantinople. 730 Places the dioceses in Calabria, Sicily, Crete, and Illyricum, which had belonged to the western patriarchate, under the eastern patriarch. Leo III, the Isaurian. Second Greek edict against images (Iconoclasm) is issued. 730 Pope Gregory II. Excommunicates Leo III, the iconoclastic Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 730 St. Willibald (c.700-786). West Saxon. Returns to Italy and spends the next ten years at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino. 730 Gregory III is proclaimed Pope while accompanying the funeral cortege of his predecessor, Gregory II. 731 Saint Gregory III. Pope. Gregory III is a Syrian. 731-741 Pope Gregory III. Convokes two synods in Rome which reaffirm the condemnation of the Greek Iconoclastic Heresy and the Emperor Leo III. 731 Gregory III excommunicates all adherents of the Iconoclastic Heresy. Gregory III condemns the destruction of Christian images, paintings, icons, sculpture, etc. Pope Gregory III. Sends his message condemning Iconoclasm to Leo III, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 731 The emperor imprisons the messengers and embarks his war fleet to Italy. The Byzantine fleet is destroyed by a storm at sea. St. Boniface. Appointed metropolitan of Germany beyond the Rhine River by Pope Gregory III. 731 Ethelbald (Aethelbald) of Mercia. Acknowledged overlord by the English kings as far as the Humber. 731 St. Bede. (the Venerable Bede) (c.672-735). Completes his “Ecclesiastical History of the English People.” 731 (“Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum”). It is written in Latin with great concern for accuracy. St. Tatwine is made the ninth Archbishop of Canterbury (731-734). 731 The Mohammedans mount a great invasion of France. 732 They burn Christian churches at Bordeaux and Poitiers. The Battle of Tours (sometimes called the Battle of Poitiers). October 732 Charles Martel (688-741), “the Hammer”, son of Pepin of Héristal, grandfather of Charlemagne, mayor of the palace, and ruler of the Franks, decisively defeats 60,000 Mohammedans under Abd-ar-Rahman, between Tours and Poitiers, France. The Battle of Tours marks the high-water mark of the moslem invasion halting the northward and westward advance of the Mohammedans into first Francia and then into Europe. Abd-ar-Rahman the Emir of Spain is killed. The Mohammedans are forced to retreat back into Spain. Charles Martel saves western civilization and the freedom of Europe. Liutprand, King of the Lombards, temporarily takes the city of Ravenna. 732 Egbert (d.766). Appointed Bishop of York by King Ceolwulf. 732-766 Egbert was one of the teachers of Alcuin of York. Constantinople is struck by the bubonic plague. 732 The “Virgin of Hodigitria” which was probably the most famous image in Byzantium is condemned by Leo III, the Isaurian, the iconoclast Emperor. Two Greek monks secretly bring it to Bari, Italy. 733 Conquest of Wessex by Mercia. 733 Leo III, the iconoclastic Emperor of the Byzantine Empire, attempts to withdraw Byzantine provinces in southern Italy from papal jurisdiction. 733 St. Boniface. Founds Fritzlar Monastery. 734 Boniface appoints St. Wigbert (English) to be its first abbot. Death of Saint Bede (c.672-735). English author and scholar. May 25, 735 Wrote on theology, history, philosophy, natural history, grammar, the Scriptures, astronomy, mathematics, and cosmology. York, England becomes an archbishopric. 735 Egbert (d.766) becomes Archbishop of York. Founding of the School of York, England. 735 Charles Martel (688-741). Conquers Burgundy. 735 St. John Damascene (700-754). Enters the monastery of St. Sabas located near Jerusalem. 735 Founding of Benedictine Abbey at Hersfeld, Hesse. 736 Death of Pelayo of the Asturias. 737 Favila (his son). King of Asturias (rules 737-739). Charles Martel (688-741) sends his brother Childebrand, to recapture Avignon from the Mohammedans. Childebrand attacks Avignon, kills the Mohammedan occupation force there, and takes 737 back Avignon. Charles Martel (688-741), son of Pepin of Héristal. 737 Recaptures from the Mohammedans the cities of Narbonne, Béziers, Montpellier, and Nimes. Christians from the south invade Egypt in order to protect the patriarch of Alexandria. 737 The Danish Vikings build their seventeen mile long bulwark across the neck of their peninsula. 737 Death of St. Leufroi of Evreux (French). Benedictine Order. June 21, 738 Also called Leufredus. Liutprand, King of the Lombards, takes away the sacred lamps from the Church of Saint Peter’s at Rome. 738 Alfonso I, “the Catholic”. King of Asturias. 739-757 Pope Gregory III. Asks Charles Martel (the “Hammer”) for help against the Lombards and the Moslems that are in Italy. 739 The Frankish minister refuses to help Pope Gregory III because he is indebted to the king of the Lombards, for helping him to clear southern Gaul of the Mohammedans. Death of St. Willibrord (658-739). Nov. 7, 739 “The Apostle of the Frisians.” St. Boniface. Founds the bishoprics of Passau, Ratisbon, and Salzburg. 739 The Byzantines crush the Mohammedans at Akroinon in Anatolia. 739 Outbreak of another Coptic rebellion in Egypt. 739 Founding of St. Leodegar Monastery in what is now Switzerland. 740 The oldest known western painting of the “Crucifixion” at the St. Quirico (Quiricus) chapel of Santa Maria Antiqua, Rome. c.740 Berber revolt. Continued revolutions in the Moslem Empire. 740-742 Church of St. Irene is built in Constantinople. 740 St. Willibald (c.700-July 7, 786). St. Willibald is sent by Pope Gregory III to help St. Boniface in the conversion of what is now Germany. 740 St. Willibald arrives in Thuringia on November 30, 740. Severe earthquake at Constantinople. 740 Saint Zachary (Zacharias). Pope. 741-752 Birthplace: Calabria. Death of Charles Martel (688-741). 741 Frankish kingdom is divided between his two sons Carloman and Pepin. Carloman receives Austrasia, Alemannia, and Thuringia. Pepin the Short receives Neustria, Burgundy, and Provence. Pepin the Short (c.714-768). Succeeds his father, Charles Martel as Mayor of the Palace. 741 Rules 741-768. Pope Zacharias appoints St. Boniface legate for the purpose of reforming the Frankish church. 741 Death of Leo III, the Isaurian (age 61), iconoclastic heretic and Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 741 Constantine V Copronymus (son of Leo III) becomes Byzantine Emperor. Constantine V rules: 741-775. 741 Constantine V Copronymus renews and even intensifies the prohibition of images (Iconoclasm) throughout the Byzantine Empire. 741-775 Constantine V continues the persecution of all Christians who do not accept the Iconoclasm edicts. Many anti-iconoclasts suffer having their eyes put out, their faces disfigured, their bodies mutilated, and their flesh scourged with the most fiendish and atrocious cruelties. Thousands of anti-iconoclasts are cast into prison where they die victims of the Iconoclastic Heresy throughout the entire Byzantine Empire. In his mad rage, the emperor Constantine V commands that the monks that do not accept Iconoclasm be burned. Constantine V follows in the footsteps of his father, Leo III, the Isaurian. Constantine V burns monasteries, destroys churches, destroys holy vessels, and breaks wooden figures and crucifixes over the heads of his enemies the anti-iconoclasts. The infuriated Constantine V digs up the bodies of the anti-iconoclast Saints and burns them with fire. “All beauty”, says one contemporary, “disappeared from the Byzantine Churches.” St. Boniface ordains St. Willibald (700-786). 741 Birth of Charlemagne (742-814), the son of Pepin the Short (c.714-768), at Aachen. 742 Earthquake. Syria and Palestine. 742 More than 500 Mohammedan cities are destroyed. Over 10,000 perish. Pepin and Carloman put down rebellions of the Aquitainians and Alemanni. At Vieux-Poitiers they swear a treaty dividing the “regnum Francorum” according to the wishes of their father, Charles Martel (688-741). 742 Accession of Childeric III (Merovingian). 743 Childeric III is the last Merovingian King of the Franks. Rules 743-751. St. Boniface. Appointed Archbishop of Mainz. 743 Walid II. Umayyad Caliph. 743-744 Called “the unbelieving caliph.” Acceptance of the Benedictine Order and Benedictine Rule in the Frankish Kingdom. 743 Yazid III. Umayyad Caliph. 744 Ibrahim. Umayyad Caliph. 744 Marwan (Mervan) II ibn Mohammed. Last of the Omayyad Caliphs. 744-750 St. Boniface. Establishes the Monastery of Fulda. 744 Boniface appoints St. Sturmi as its first abbot. Swabia becomes part of Childeric III’s Frankish Empire. 744 Pepin the Short (c.714-768), son of Charles Martel (688-741), won over to ecclesiastical reform, convokes the Council of Soissons. 744 Rachis of Friuli. King of Lombards. 744-749 Byzantine forces invade Arab held Syria. 745 Byzantine Emperor Constantine V Copronymus (to 751) defeats the Arab Mohammedans. Synod at Rome is presided over by Pope Zacharias. 745 The heretical teachings of Aldebert and Clement are condemned at the insistence of St. Boniface. Constantine V re-captures Cyprus from the Mohammedans. 746 Founding of a school for singing at the Monastery of Fulda. 746 Wales. “A great dearth.” Thousands perish. 746 During the rule of Byzantine Emperor Constantine V, Constantinople is struck by the bubonic plague. Plague spreads to Greece, Calabria, and Sicily. 746-749 Almost 200,000 people perish. Abbasids revolt against Umayyad (Omayyad) rule of the Arab Empire. 747 Carloman, Mayor of the Palace, abdicates. Carloman retires to the Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino. 747 Pepin III, the Younger, is sole Mayor of the Palace (to 750). Saint Boniface (c.680-754) is appointed to the see of Mainz by Pepin le Bref (the Short). 747 Famine throughout Scotland. 748 Thousands perish. Tassilo, the last independent Duke of Bavaria. 748-788 Aistulf becomes King of the Lombards (Langobards). 749-756 Continuation of Lombard expansion in Italy. Death of St. John of Damascus (c.675-c.749), in Arabia. 749 He was the first organizer of Christian liturgical song. He also dealt with the problem of musical notation. Battle of the Zab River. Feb. 750 The Abbasids decisively defeat the Umayyads at the river Zab. Marwan (Mervan) II, the Umayyad Caliph is defeated. Overthrow of the Umayyad (Omayyad) Caliphate (651-750) by the Abbasids (Baghdad). 750 Abu al Abbas (rules 750-754) wipes out the Umayyads in Damascus, Syria and founds the Abbasid Dynasty (the Abbasid caliphate). The Abbasid caliphs will rule until 1258 when Baghdad will be ravaged by the Mongols. The Abbasid caliphate is centered at Baghdad. Abu al Abbas becomes the first Abbasid Caliph of Arabia (House of Abbas). Abu al Abbas has all of the Umayyads hunted down and slaughtered. 750 Abu al Abbas in Damascus opens the tombs of every one of the Umayyad caliphs, and has their bones burned and their ashes scattered. The Umayyads are the descendants of Abu Sufyan. The Omayyads represented the “Sunni” branch of Mohammedanism. The Abbasids represent the “Shia” branch. Abd-ar-Rahman I is the only Omayyad (Sunni) to escape the executions that follow the Abbasid takeover. Abd-ar-Rahman flees for his life from his Abbasid (Shiite) pursuers through Egypt and North Africa. 750 Abu al Abbas. Abbasid Caliph (the successor). 750-754 Abbasid caliphs rule over Egypt. 750-969 Founding of the Monastery of Heidenheim. 750 Founding of Granada. 750 St. Vitus’ dance epidemic in Germany. c.750 Medicine and Pharmacology become two separate sciences. c.750 Wind organs, coming from Byzantium, replace water organs. 750 There are now four sects of Mohammedanism: Sunnites, Hafenites, Shafites, and Malikites. Civil wars among the Mohammedans. 750 The Byzantine Empire fights the Mohammedans that had taken over Armenia in 693. 751-752 Lombards under Aistulf seize the city of Ravenna from the Byzantines. 751 End of the Byzantine Exarchate in Italy. 751 Final fall of Ravenna and the Byzantine exarchate to Aistulf, the King of the Lombards since 749. Aistulf, King of the Lombards, defeats the Greek exarchs and seizes Ravenna from the Byzantine Empire. Collapse of Byzantine rule in Italy. Aistulf, King of the Lombards, demands tribute from Rome. Up until this date the Byzantine Empire had maintained its claim on Italy, because the Exarch still ruled at Ravenna, with ever narrowing lands. Pepin le Bref (the Short), son of Charles Martel, with the consent of the Pope, deposes Childeric III, the last Merovingian King of the Franks. 751 End of the Merovingian line in France. The Carolingians take the title of King of the Franks. Pepin III, the Short, rules 751-768. Pepin le Bref (the Short), son of Charles Martel, is elevated to the throne by “all the Franks” at Soissons and is anointed with holy oil. 751 He is crowned first King of the Franks by St. Boniface, the Papal Legate. As Pepin III, he becomes the first Carolingian King of the Franks. Pepin III le Bref reigns 751-768. Founding of the great Carolingian Dynasty of Frankish kings. Beginning of the Carolingian Dynasty of Frankish kings. 751 The Carolingians will rule from 751-987. Battle of Samarkand. 751 Arabs defeat the Chinese at Samarkand. China loses western Asian dominions to the Arab Mohammedans. Pope Stephen III (d.757). 752-757 Sometimes referred to as Stephen II. Lombards threaten to take the city of Rome itself. 753 The Lombards advance on Rome. Pepin le Bref (714-768). Leads a large army into pagan Saxony in order to restore order there. 753 The pagan Saxons had recently (752) burnt down thirty churches in Saxony. St. Boniface sets off for Frisia. 753 He destroys many heathen shrines, and baptizes many thousands of people throughout Frisia. While Aistulf, the king of the Lombards, is threatening Rome, Pope Stephen III undertakes the first recorded papal journey north of the Alps to meet Pepin the Short at Ponthion in southern Gaul. Jan. 754 Stephen III asks Pepin the Short for protection from the Lombard invaders. Pepin promises to invade Italy and save Rome from the threatening Lombards. Pope Stephen III. Crowns Pepin the Short (714-768) ruler of the Franks at St. Denis. 754 Pepin III, the Short (714-768). Crosses the Alps with a large army, in his expedition into Italy to protect Rome and Pope Stephen III from the Lombard invaders. 754 Pepin III, the Short, wars against the Lombards (754-756). Aistulf, the Lombard, is made a Frankish vassal. Two successful campaigns of Pepin III force the Langobards under Aistulf of Lombardy to return the conquered territories of Ravenna to the Church. Pepin III, the Short, successfully drives the Lombards out of Ravenna. Pepin III, the Short, defends Rome from the Lombards. Pepin III takes a large part of Lombard possessions. Battle of Burford. 754 Ethelbald of Mercia is defeated by his West Saxon under-king Cuthred. Wessex recovers freedom. Constantine V Copronymus. Iconoclastic Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Continues his iconoclastic position and anti-monasticism. 754 Constantine V begins the dissolution of monasteries because of his opposition to anti-iconoclastic monasticism. A council of 338 Byzantine bishops defend the errors of Iconoclasm. 754 This council and all of its actions will be later formally rejected and condemned by the Lateran (Roman) Synod of 769 (anti-Iconoclasm). St. Boniface. Resigns his see in order to reconvert the Frieslanders, who had lapsed back into paganism after the death of St. Willibrord. 754 Martyrdom of St. Boniface (c.680-754). June 5, 754 Boniface, the great Christian missionary in Germany, and a group of thirty Christians are attacked by a band of pagans. They are all murdered. Abu Ja'far al-Mansur. Second Abbasid caliph (=successor). 754-775 Consolidates Abbasid rule. Al-Mansur begins the building of the new Abbasid capital at Baghdad. The Caliphate will be transferred from Syria to Baghdad (762). Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan (known as Geber) (b.c.721). Arab scholar. Describes how to prepare aluminum chloride, white lead, nitric acid, and acetic acid. c.754 War between the Byzantine Empire and the Bulgarians. 755-764 Revolt disrupts China. 755 The Donation of Pepin the Short. 756 Formation of the Papal States in Italy when Pepin the Short gives the Pope lands around Ravenna that he had conquered from the Lombards. Marks the beginning of the temporal power of the Popes. Pope has direct temporal rule 756-1870. Abd-al-Rahman. The only Omayyad to escape from the massacres of 750 in Baghdad, he lands near Gibraltar. 756 He meets the ruler of Cordoba (Yusuf-al-Fihri) in battle and defeats him. Abd-al-Rahman claims all of Spain as his. Wrests Spain from the Caliphate of the Abbasids. Founding of the Omayyad Caliphate of Cordoba by Abd-al-Rahman. Establishes at Cordoba his own government independent of Baghdad. Abd-al-Rahman himself will rule 756-788. The Omayyad Dynasty of Córdoba, founded by Abd-al-Rahman, comes to power in Mohammedan controlled Spain. The Omayyad line in Spain will rule from 756 until 1031. Division of the Mohammedan Empire. 756 Damascus (Abbasid) and Cordoba, Spain (Umayyad). Desiderius (Didier). 756-774 Last King of the Lombards. Ming Huang, Chinese emperor abdicates. 756 An Lushan seizes the capital and proclaims himself emperor. Al Mansur, the Abbasid caliph, sends military aid to Hsüan Tsung in China to crush a rebellion after the resignation of the Emperor Ming Huang. 756 Offa. King of Mercia. 757-796 Saint Paul I. Pope. 757-767 Birthplace: Rome. Fruela I. King of Asturias. 757-768 Ethelbald, King of Mercia, is killed by his ealdormen at Seckington. 757 Offa, seizes the kingdom of Mercia. Offa unites most of England. Offa rules as King of Mercia 757-796. Offa assumes the title of “Rex totius Anglorum patriae.” An Lushan is killed at Luoyang. End of the insurrection in China that has caused the death of almost one million people. 757 The Mutazilites reject the writings of Mohammed’s Koran. 757 They will be tolerated until 847. Edbriht, King of Northumbria. Decides to become a monk and is succeeded by his son Osulf. Osulf is killed by his own household. 758 Abd-al-Rahman (Umayyad). Overcomes rebellions in Spain against his rule. 758-763 The Byzantines defeat the Slavs in Thrace. 758 Famine of long duration throughout the kingdom of Ireland. 759 Thousands perish. The Franks recapture Narbonne from the Mohammedans. 759 See 720. Pepin III, the Short (714-768). Drives the Mohammedans back to the Pyrenees. Extends Frankish rule to the Pyrenees. 759 “The Book of Kells.” Illuminated Latin gospels written in Irish. c.760 Now at Trinity College, Dublin. Founding of Turkish Empire by a Tartar tribe in Armenia. 760 Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, India. Begun. 760 Cut out from the rock as a complete building in the round. Death of St. Winnibald. December 18, 761 St. Winnibald is the brother of St. Willibald. “St. Maria in Valle”, at Cividale, Italy. 762-776 An unusual survival of Roman style Architecture. Abu Ja'far Al-Mansur. Abbasid Caliph. Moves the capital of the Mohammedan empire from Damascus, Syria to Baghdad where he built a new capital. 762 Baghdad becomes the seat of the Abbasid Caliphs. Baghdad is made the new Abbasid capital of the Moslem Empire by Al-Mansur, the Abbasid Caliph. The ancient city of Babylon is located 55 miles south of Baghdad. Founding of Benedictine monastery at Lorsch, Hesse. 763 Founding of Benedictine abbey of Ottobeuren, Bavaria. 764 Aix-la-Chapelle becomes the capital of the Frankish Empire. 765 Alhred of Northumbria. 765-774 Building of Baghdad by the Abbasids nears completion. 765 Aethelbert is Archbishop of York, England. 766-780 Ethelbert, the Archbishop of England, and Alcuin make York a major center of Christian learning, study, teaching, education, and translation. c.766 Alcuin (c.735-804). Becomes head of the York Cathedral school in England. 767 Coptic revolt in Egypt. 767-772 Pope Stephen III (IV). 768-772 Death of Pepin the Short (714-768). 768 The Frankish kingdom is ruled by his two sons. Carloman becomes King of Austrasia (768-771). Charlemagne (742-814) is joint ruler 768-771. Charlemagne will soon become sole king of the Franks 771-814. Aurelius. King of Asturias. 768-774 Ireland is struck by a great famine accompanied by earthquake. 768 Thousands perish. Lateran Synod. 769 Condemns Iconoclasm (the Iconoclastic Heresy) and the iconoclastic Byzantine council that was held in 754. Death of St. Sebaldus (Sebald). Benedictine Order. August 19, 770 Missionary to Germany. Carloman, King of Austrasia, the son of Pepin the Short (714-768), retires voluntarily to a monastery. 771 Death of Carloman (brother of Charlemagne), King of Austrasia. 771 Charlemagne (742-814) is elected sole King of the Frankish kingdom. Charlemagne reigns 771-814. Epidemical disease. Chichester, England. 772 Thousands perish. Drought causes famine in Ireland. 772 Thousands perish. Hadrian I. Pope. 772-795 Beginning of Charlemagne’s Saxon Wars (772-804). 772 Charlemagne (742-814) wars against the pagan Saxons which are under Widukind and will subdue them. Conquest of Saxony by Charlemagne. Charlemagne (b.742-d.814). Advances to the borders of the Hessian Franks, to the Eresburg, a fortress just within the Saxon borders, where the pagan Saxons congregated at certain seasons to honor the Irminsul. This was a tall pillar of wood, symbolic of the “all-sustaining” earth tree, Igdrasil. Charlemagne takes the Eresburg and destroys the Irminsul. 772 Charlemagne (742-814). Gradual conversion of Saxony from paganism to Christianity. 772-804 Desiderius (Didier), the last King of the Lombards opposes Pope Hadrian (Adrian) I. 772 The Lombards once again threaten Rome. 772 Pope Hadrian I appeals to Charlemagne (742-814) for help against the Lombard forces that are threatening the city of Rome. 772 Renewal of hostilities between the Byzantine Empire and the Bulgars. 772 At the request of Pope Hadrian (Adrian) I, Charlemagne crosses the Great St. Bernard from Geneva and invades Italy in order to confront the Lombards. 773-774 Charlemagne (b.742-d.814). Lacking machinery to break through the defenses of Pavia, Charlemagne orders his troops to surround the city (September). He plans to starve out the Lombard enemy. 773 Siege of Pavia. 773-774 Charlemagne proceeds to visit Pope Adrian I at Rome. St. Benedict of Aniane (c.750-821). Leaves the army and enters the Benedictine Order at St. Seine. 773 Conquest of the Langobard (Lombard) Kingdom by Charlemagne. 774 Charlemagne takes Pavia and dethrones Didier (Desiderius). Charlemagne, King of the Franks, conquers and annexes the Lombard kingdom of Northern Italy, absorbing it into the Frankish Empire. Charlemagne assumes the iron crown. Corsica, Dalmatia, Istria, Venetia also come under his rule. Charlemagne ends the Kingdom of the Lombards in Italy which had lasted 206 years (since their invasion in 568). After surrendering the city of Pavia and his kingdom, Desiderius, the last King of the Lombards, enters a monastery in France. Plague and famine in Scotland. 774 Thousands perish. Offa II, King of Mercia. Subdues the kingdom of Kent. 774 St. Juan de Pravia, Spain. 774-783 Earliest surviving Asturian church. Charlemagne arrives at Rome. He is received by Pope Hadrian I. 774 Charlemagne confirms Pepin III’s donation of territory to the pope. He will enlarge it in 781. Kôbô Daishi (Kukai). Japanese Buddhist studied in China, returned and established the Shingen sect in Japan. 774-835 Silo. King of Asturias. 774-783 Translation of the “Elements of Geometry” of Euclid from the original Greek into Arabic. 774 Charlemagne. Makes a fast return trip to northern Italy during the winter of 775-776 in order to crush a Lombard rebellion against his rule in Treviso. 775-776 Hereafter the Lombard Kingdom vanishes from history. Death of Constantine V. Leo IV (b.750-d.780). Byzantine Emperor. 775-780 Leo IV continues enforcing Iconoclasm in the Byzantine territories. Alcuin of York. Writes elementary texts on arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. c.775 Death of Al-Mansur (aged 63), the second Abbasid Caliph. 775 Succeeded by his son Mohammed Al-Mahdi (rules 775-785). Defeat of the Bulgarians by the Byzantines at Lithosoria. 775 Institution of a Mohammedan purge by the Abbasid Caliph Mohammed Al Mahdi (775-785). 775 Expansion of the Carolingian Empire into Bavaria. 775-777 Charlemagne (b.742-d.814). Completes the takeover of fortresses of the pagan Saxons. 776 Completes the conquest of Saxony. Charlemagne is in Dalmatia. 776 Beatus of Liebana. “Commentary on the Apocalypse.” 776 Will be revised in 784 and again in 786. Tassilo of Bavaria. Builds the Benedictine Abbey of Kremsmünster. 777 Offa, King of Mercia, subdues the Kingdom of Wessex. 777 Charlemagne invades Moslem Spain. He is halted at Saragossa. 777 Battle of Roncesvalles. 778 Defeat of Charlemagne’s army by the Moslems and Basques at Roncesvalles, in the Pyrenees while they are retreating. Death of Roland. Subject of the “Song of Roland.” “Song of Roland.” Written. 778 Victory of the Byzantines over the moslems at Germanikeia and their expulsion from Anatolia. 778 Widukind, the leader of the pagan Saxons, leads the Saxons to rebellion. The Saxons raid the Rhineland. 778 Spanish March (later called Catalonia) is formed in northern Spain by Charlemagne out of lands he re-captured from the Mohammedans. 778 Cynewulf, King of Wessex, and Offa, King of Mercia, meet in battle near Benson in Oxfordshire. 779 Offa of Mercia defeats Cynewulf of Wessex. Offa II, King of Mercia, becomes King of all England. 779 Death of Saint Walburga (West Saxon). 779 Death of St. Leoba. Abbess. 779 Leo IV, iconoclast emperor of the Byzantine Empire, dies (age 30). Constantine VI (b.770-d.797), his son, ascends to the Byzantine throne at the age of ten. Constantine VI is Byzantine emperor 780-797. 780 Irene, his mother, rules the Byzantine Empire as regent (780-790) for her son Constantine VI. Irene is an anti-Iconoclast. Arabs bring decimal numbers from India. 780 Desolation of England by famine. 780 Desolation of Scotland by famine. 780 Desolation of Wales by famine. 780 Charlemagne (742-814). Subdues Aquitaine and places his son Louis on the throne. 781 Charlemagne enlarges the territory that was originally given to the Church by his father Pepin the Short. 781 Pope Adrian I. Crowns Pepin, the son of Charlemagne, King of the Frankish kingdom, as King of Italy. 781 Charlemagne meets the Christian monk Alcuin of York in Italy. 781 Charlemagne invites Alcuin of York to set up and head the palace school at his court at Aachen. Charlemagne (742-814). Sets up the Palace School at his capital, Aix-la-Chapelle. 781-796 This school helps to preserve classical scholarship, knowledge, learning, translation, and education in Europe. The Nestorians, who had settled in China since 645, develop missionary activities and build Christian (Nestorian) monasteries. 781 Godescalc. Frankish. “Evangelistary,” 781-783 An illuminated manuscript in Latin produced at Aix-la-Chapelle. Alcuin of York (735-804). Christian monk. Invited by Charlemagne, Alcuin leaves monastery at York (see 735) to head Charlemagne’s Palace School at his capital at Aix-la-Chapelle. 782 Arrival of Alcuin of York (735-804) arrives at Aix-la-Chapelle. 782 Alcuin of York (735-804), institutes a system of basic education, and establishes a higher educational system based on the study of the seven “Artes liberales” (the liberal arts). 782-796 Knowledge is conveyed through: - The Trivium: Grammar, Rhetoric, and Dialectics. - The Quadrivium: Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, and Music. Alcuin is a member of the court of Charlemagne. 782-796 Battle of Verden. 782 Execution of 4000 Saxons by beheading at Verden by Charlemagne. Final annexation of Saxony as a Frankish province. Charlemagne issues the “Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae.” 782 (The Saxon Capitulary). The Arabs advance to the Bosporus. Once again Constantinople is threatened and raided by the Mohammedans. 782-783 Staurakios, Byzantine general. Defeats the Slavs in Macedonia and Greece. 783 Mauregato. King of Asturias. 783-788 The pagan Widukind leads another Saxon rebellion against Charlemagne and massacres a Frankish army. 783 Charlemagne re-invades Saxony. Charlemagne (742-814). Leads his army to the banks of the river Elbe. 784 No Frankish ruler had ever campaigned as far to the east as this. Completion of the construction of Offa’s Dyke (begun in 779). 784 Marks the frontier between Mercia and Wales. It is built against Welsh attacks on Mercia. Floating magnetic compass in China. 785 Pope Hadrian I. Condemns Adoptionism (the Adoptionist Heresy). 785 Charlemagne once again subdues pagan Saxony. 785 Charlemagne continues his efforts to establish Christianity there. Widukind, the leader of the Saxons, finally converts from paganism to Christianity. 785 Baptism of Widukind, leader of the Saxons. 785 Cologne becomes an archbishopric. 785 Charlemagne takes control of Catalonia. 785-811 Al-Hadi. Abbasid Caliph (Baghdad). 785-786 Charlemagne. “Saxon Capitulary” of 785. 785 Cremation is prohibited. Blue Mosque of Cordoba, Spain. 785-990 Building is begun under Abd-el-Rahman, the Umayyad ruler of Spain. Harun-al-Rashid becomes Abbasid Caliph of the moslem Empire at Baghdad. Rules 786-809. 786 Baghdad becomes the major Mohammedan city. Death of St. Willibald (c.700-786), a West Saxon, at Eichstätt. July 7, 786 Theodulf (d.821) is made Bishop of Orléans, France. 786 The Mohammedans conquer Kabul, Afghanistan. 787 Pope Adrian I calls the Seventh General Church Council. Also called the Second Nicene Council. Held at Nicaea (Nice). Sept. 24-Oct. 23, 787 377 Bishops condemn Iconoclasm (the Iconoclastic Heresy). The Council emphasizes that religious works of art are not worshipped as idols, they are only inspirational. The Council also condemns Adoptionism (the Adoptionist Heresy), which claims that Christ is not the Son of God by nature but only by “Adoption.” This is the last council that the Eastern Church is in agreement with. Founding of the archbishopric of Lichfield by Offa, King of Mercia. 787 Offa has his son Egfrith anointed king (to 796). Charlemagne (742-814). Annexes the Lombard duchy of Beneventum. 787 Paul the Deacon (c.720-799). Historian and scholar. “Historia gentis Langobardorum”. c.787 (“The History of the Lombards”). Six books. Written at Monte Casino. First Viking (Northmen) invasion of England. 787 The Vikings, whom the Anglo-Saxons inaccurately called the Danes, first arrive in England. Surrender of Tassilo III of Bavaria to Charlemagne. Deposition of Tassilo of Bavaria by Charlemagne. Annexation of Bavaria by Charlemagne. 788 Burmudo I, “the Deacon”. King of Asturias. 788-791 Abd-el-Rahman (Umayyad). Makes Cordoba, Spain, the western Mohammedan capital. 788 Abd-el-Rahman of Cordoba (Umayyad) dies. 788 His empire breaks out into a number of separate states upon his death. Hisham I. Omayyad Amir of Spain (Cordoba). 788-796 Idris establishes Shiite kingdom in Morocco. 788 Irene, Regent for her son Constatnine VI, rejects Iconoclasm (the Iconoclastic Heresy). 789 Irene accepts the conclusions of the Second Council of Nicea (787). Charlemagne. “Admonitio generalis.” 789 Designed to bring closer the realization of a “societas christiana.” Centula (St. Riquier) Abbey. 790-799 A large Carolingian Church. Discovery of Iceland by Irish Christian monks. They reached Iceland in skin-frame vessels. 790 Byzantine army puts Constantine VI in power. Constantine VI imprisons his mother Irene (anti-Iconoclast). End of the regency of his mother Irene (780-790). 790 Constantine VI. Byzantine Emperor. 790-797 Offa, King of Mercia. Founds St. Alban’s Abbey. 790 Under the supervision of the Schola Cantorum in Rome, schools for church music are established at Paris, Cologne, Soissons, and Metz. 790 “Libri Carolini”. 790 Rejects the Iconoclastic heresy (Greek Iconoclasm). Alcuin (735-804) is appointed principal of the Frankish court school. 790 A most “grievous” famine strikes Wales. Thousands perish. 791 Frankish wars with the pagan Avars. 791-796 Hisham I, Amir of Cordoba, the successor of Abd al-Rahman. Proclaims Jihad against the Christians in the Asturias and in France. 792 Over 100,000 Mohammedans answer the call of Hisham I. They invade France, set fire to Narbonne, march on Carcassone where they meet the Christians in battle. The Mohammedans are stopped and return to Cordoba. Alfonso II, the Chaste. King of Asturias. Defeats and expels from the Asturias, the Mohammedans who invade his dominions. 792-842 Constantine VI. Byzantine Emperor. Recalls his mother, Irene, and makes her co-ruler. 792 Fulda Cathedral. Building begins. 792 Offa, King of Mercia. Annexes East Anglia to Mercia. 793 Vikings attack the island of Lindisfarne. 793 They destroy the church and Lindisfarne Monastery. The Vikings will also ransack Egfrith’s monastery at Jarrow (794). Charlemagne summons the Synod of Frankfurt in order to refute the Adoptionist Heresy (Adoptionism). Condemnation of Adoptionism, an early heresy originating in the East. 794 This heresy states that the Virgin Mary gave birth to a wholly human Jesus, who was later “adopted” by God as his Son. That is, God the Son was “adopted,” not eternally co-equal and co-eternal with God the Father. In other words God the Son is not uncreated. Christianity, however, is based on the co-equality and co-eternality of the God the Father, and God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. The capital of Japan is moved (to 1867) from Nara to Heian (will later be called Kyoto). 794 Japan enters into its Heian period (794-1185). Battle of Tisza River (Theiss River). 795-796 Charlemagne, King of the Franks, defeats the Avars on the Danube River. Eric of Friuli leads the Frankish charge that routes the Avars. The Avars vanish from history. The Vikings raid the coast of Ireland. 795 The Vikings sack the Monastery of Iona. 795 Revolts in Egypt. 795 Saint Leo III. Pope. Elected Pope on the day that his predecessor, Hadrian is buried. 795 Birthplace: Rome. Papacy: 795-816. Cynewulf, Old English Anglo-Saxon poet. Writes “The Fates of the Apostles”, and “The Ascension”. c.795-800 Palatine Chapel, Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle). 796-805 Built by Charlemagne (by Eudes of Metz). Part of the Carolingian Renaissance. Hisham I, Omayyad Amir of Cordoba, is succeeded by al-Hakam I. 796 Hakam I. Amir of Spain (Cordoba). 796-822 During Hakam’s rule, he suspects a rebellion among the people of Toledo. He has over 5,000 Christian Toledans beheaded. This day is remembered in Spanish history as “The Day of the Ditch.” Charlemagne. Makes the monastery school at St. Martin of Tours Abbey a university. He makes Alcuin (735-804) its head. 796 Charlemagne appoints Alcuin abbot (798-804). Eardwulf of Northumbria. 796-810 Alcuin of York (735-804). Orders sacred Christian writings to be copied at the monastery school of St. Martin of Tours. 796-804 Death of Offa, King of Mercia. Offa”s death marks the end of Mercian dominance in England. 796 Cenwulf. King of Mercia. 796-821 Irene overthrows her son Constantine VI, blinds him, kills him, and assumes sole power as the first ruling Byzantine empress. 797 Irene. Byzantine Empress. 797-802 Irene opposes Iconoclasm (the Iconoclastic Heresy). Irene restores the use of icons in the Byzantine churches. London, England is destroyed by fire. 798 Irene, ruler of Byzantine Empire, purchases peace with the Arabs. 798 Cenwulf of Mercia, stamps out an attempted coup of Kent against him. End of the Kentish dynasty. 798 Charlemagne. Conquest and destruction of the Adriatic port of Fiume. 799 Civil war is about to break out in Rome, arising from disputes between the Western Church and the Byzantine Empire. 799 Enemies of Pope Leo III ambush him, throw him off his horse, beat him, and attempt to gouge out his eyes and cut out his tongue. 799 Pope Leo III calls upon Charlemagne to help him in subduing his enemies and stopping the conflict in Rome. 799 St. Peter’s Church. Niederzell, Switzerland. 799 Abbey Church of St. Riquier (France) is completed. Begun in 790. 799

Charlemagne (742-814) appears in person with an armed force, enters into Rome, and seizes the enemies of Pope Leo III and the Church. 800 Beginning of the Holy Roman Empire. 800 AD Christmas Day, Dec. 25, 800. Coronation of Charlemagne at Rome. Rules 800-814. Charlemagne, the King of the Franks, is crowned as the first Holy Roman Emperor of the West by Pope Leo III at Rome. The Holy Roman (West Roman) Empire is the new empire of the West, as opposed to the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire. It includes all of France, Germany, Spain to the Ebro, Italy to Benevento, several isles of the Mediterranean, and the greater portion of Pannonia. Irene, the Eastern Empress, refuses to recognize Charlemagne as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. 800 Church of St. Boniface at Fulda, Germany. 800-822 Invasion of Bohemia by the Franks. 800 Harun-al-Rashid sends an embassy to the court of Charlemagne, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. 800 Invasion of Germany by the Northmen (Vikings). 800 The city of Machu Picchu. Peru. c. 800 Will be rediscovered in 1911. Temple of the Sun at Moche, Peru. c.800-900 A huge adobe brick temple, five stories high and crowned with a pyramid. It is the largest ancient construction in South America and rises to 135 ft. Aghlabid Dynasty. 800-909 Centered in North Africa and subject to the Abbasid caliphate of Baghdad. Prohibition of prostitution throughout the Holy Roman Empire by Charlemagne ((742-814). 801 First historical encyclopedia. Chinese T’ang Dynasty. 801 France, Germany, and Italy are badly shaken by earthquakes. 801 Thousands are killed. Death of Paul the Deacon. 801 Alcuin settles at St. Martin of Tours. 801 Louis I (the son of Charlemagne). Leads armies from Provence, Languedoc, and Burgundy into Catalonia, and captures Barcelona back from the Mohammedans after a siege of several months. 801 Charlemagne makes Barcelona the capital of the Spanish March. 801 Egbert, King of Wessex. 802 Becomes king of the West Saxons (Wessex) in southern England. Egbert rules 802-839. Charlemagne (742-814). Orders the codification of Germanic tribal laws. 802 Nicephorus I dethrones Irene and becomes Byzantine Emperor. Irene is exiled (she dies in 803). 802 Nicephorus I rules 802-811. The Vikings raid the British Isles. Domination of Ireland by the Viking barbarians. 802 By 880, the Vikings will have permanent settlements in England and Ireland. St. Ludger (d.809). Founding of Münster Monastery. 802 Becomes the first Bishop (to 809). Harun al-Rashid suddenly ends the power of the Barmecide family in Baghdad. 803 Nicephorus I and Charlemagne settle a territorial dispute. 803 The Byzantine Empire keeps Southern Italy, Dalmatia, and Venice. Mosaics in the Church of St. Germaine-des-Pres. 803 A most terrible famine strikes Scotland. Thousands perish. 803 Harde-Knud (Hardicanute) is Canute I, King of Denmark. 803-850 Arab Mohammedans defeat the forces of the Byzantine Empire. 803-806 They attack and ravage Asia Minor and Cyprus, and compel Nicephorus I to pay tribute. Ex-empress Irene dies while she is in exile. 803 Final war of Charlemagne against the Saxons. 804 His domain now extends to the Elbe. Battle of Mount Taurus. 804 Between the Byzantine forces under Nicephorus I, Byzantine Emperor, and the Moslems under Haroun-al-Rashid. The Byzantines are defeated with a loss of 40,000 men. Completion and Consecration of the Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle). 805 Final destruction of the Avar Kingdom. 805 Conquest of Bohemia by the Franks. 805-806 Consecration of the Oratory at Germigny-des-Pres. France. 806 Built according to the plan of Aix-la-Chapelle at Aachen. Charlemagne (742-814) publishes the “Divisio Regni”. 806 Provides for the equal division of the Holy Roman Empire among his sons after his death. Sack of the Monastery of Iona by the Viking (Northmen) barbarians. 806 Battle of Heraclea Pontica. 806 Under the personal direction of Harun al-Rashid, the moslem forces strom into Heraclea Pontica, on the Black Sea, and capture it. Lex Frisionum for the Frisians. 806 Ambassadors from Harun al-Rashid are received at Aix-la-Chapelle. 807 War between the Franks and the Byzantine Empire. 807 Rhodes is pillaged by Arab Mohammedans. 807 Descent of the Vikings (Northmen) upon France. 808 War with the Danes (808-810). Reign of Khan Krum, Bulgarian ruler. 808-814 During his reign, Krum will besiege Constantinople. Bulgaria becomes an independent empire. 808 Bulgaria will return to the Byzantine Empire in 1018. From 809, Krum (or Crunnus), Khan of the Bulgars, is at war with the Byzantine Empire. 809-813 The Mohammedans seize Sardinia and Corsica. 809-810 Death of Harun-al-Rashid (Caliph of Baghdad), age 46. 809 His son, Caliph al-Amin, succeeds Harun-al-Rashid. Al-Amin is Caliph 809-813. Outbreak of the Third Moslem Civil War (809-813). 809 Civil war between al-Amin, the son of Harun-al-Rashid, and another son, Abd Allah al-Ma’mun (786-833), who was proclaimed Caliph in Persia. Council of Aix-la-Chapelle. 809 Decides on the controversy about the Procession of the Holy Ghost. Restores the Filioque clause to the Credo. Conquest of Sofia by the Bulgarians, under Khan Krum. 809 Abbey Church of St. Vicenzo. 809 Boundary treaty between Charlemagne (742-814) and Nicephorus I, Byzantine Emperor. 810 Nicephorus I, Byzantine Emperor, invades Bulgaria. 810 Murder of Godfrid, King of the Danes. 810 Begins a long period of struggles for power between rival contenders. Eanred of Northumbria. 810-841 Bernard (Carolingian Dynasty). King of Italy. 810-818 Defeat of the Byzantines by Krum, the king of the Bulgarians. 811 Nicephorous I, Byzantine Emperor, is killed in a great battle fighting against the Bulgars. Michael I Rhangabe. Byzantine Emperor. 811-813 Michael I, Byzantine Emperor. Finds himself compelled to give up his opposition and formally recognize the imperial status of Charlemagne as Emperor of the West. 812 Michael I sends an embassy to the court of Charlemagne (742-814). Church of St. Donato. In modern day Zadar, Yugoslavia. 812-876 Khan Krum of Bulgaria. Takes the important Byzantine fortress of Mesembria. 812 Khan Krum of Bulgaria sacks Adrianople and burns the suburbs of the city of Constantinople. 813 Tahir, general of Mamun, offers peace terms to Caliph al-Amin. 813 Al-Amin surrenders Baghdad. Al-Amin is treacherously murdered. Abd Allah al-Mamun (786-833), brother of al-Amin, is proclaimed Caliph (Abbasid) in Persia. Mamun rules 813-833. End of the third Moslem Civil War. Constantinople is seriously threatened by Bulgarians under Khan Krum of Bulgaria. 813 Charlemagne (742-814) crowns his son, Louis the Pious, as co-Emperor at the diet of Aix-la-Chapelle. 813 Versinicia. 813 Khan Krum of Bulgaria defeats the forces of the Byzantines Empire at Versinicia. Arabs found a school of astronomy in Baghdad. 813 Flood. England. 813 Overthrow of the Severn. 2,000 deaths. The Byzantine army led by general Leo deposes Michael I and replaces him with Leo V. 813 Reign of Leo V, the Armenian. A successful general, he becomes Byzantine Emperor. Leo V rules 813-820. Leo V will revive Iconoclasm (814). 813-820 Leo V defeats the Bulgars and concludes a 30 year truce (813). Death of Charlemagne (742-814) at Aix-la-Chapelle. 814 Louis I, the Pious, becomes Emperor and King of the Franks. Louis I is the son of Charlemagne. Louis I the Pious rules 814-840. Leo V, the Armenian. Byzantine Emperor. Revives Iconoclasm (the Iconoclastic Heresy) in the Byzantine Empire. 814 Doge’s Palace, Venice. Begun. 814 Death of Khan Krum of Bulgaria. 814 He is succeeded by Omurtag (rules 814-831). Egbert, King of Wessex. Defeats the Britons at Cornwall. 815 Council of St. Sophia (Byzantine). 815 Leo V, the Armenian, formally revives Iconoclasm. Leo V orders the destruction of all images in the Byzantine Empire. Beginning of a second period of violent persecution of all those that reject Iconoclasm (the anti-iconoclasts). St. Gall Abbey. Switzerland. Begun. 816 Founding of the library at St. Gallen by Abbot Gosbert. 816 Pope Stephen IV. 816-817 Louis I, the Pious, is crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire at Rheims by Pope Stephen IV. 816 The Emperor gives up his claim to control the election of popes. 816 Council of Aachen. 817 The Benedictine rule of the Benedictine Order is recognized as the rule for the monastic life in the kingdom of the Franks. Aachen was the capital of Charlemagne. The Benedictine rule becomes a powerful factor in laying the foundation and fostering civilization, education, study, translation, and learning among the people of Europe. St. Benedict of Aniane (c.750-821). “Capitulare monasticum.” 817 A systemization of the rule of the Benedictine Order is approved by the Council of Aachen. Saint Paschal I (or St. Pascal I). Pope. 817-824 Birthplace: Rome. Louis I, the Pious (son of Charlemagne). First partition of the Frankiish Empire. 817 Louis divides the Carolingian Empire between his three sons. Lothar becomes coregent - given most of Burgundy and Francia. Louis receives Bavaria. Pepin receives Aquitaine. Lothaire, a fourth son, will be associated in the empire at a later date. Pepin. King of Aquitaine. 817-838 Byzantine forces crush the Bulgars at Mesembria and force the Bulgars to accept a peace treaty. 817 Bernard, King of Italy, and one of Charlemagne’s grandsons, rebels against Louis’ proposed division of the Frankish Empire because he is excluded from it. Bernard is captured and blinded. He dies three days later. 818 Louis I. Takes over the rule of Italy. 818-822 Rule of Samanids, Persian dynasty that rules after the conquest of what is now Iran by Arab Mohammedans. c.819-999 Leo V, Iconoclastic Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Leo V, reviver of Iconoclasm (the Iconoclastic heresy), is murdered by conspirators. 820 He is succeeded by another general, Michael II Psellus (the Stammerer). Rule of Michael II. Iconoclastic ruler of the Byzantine Empire. 820-829 Michael II continues the persecution of all of those who reject Iconoclasm (the anti-iconoclasts). Death of Cenwulf of Mercia. End of Mercian supremacy. 821 Entry of the Varangi into Russia. c.820 Louis the Pious. Does public penance for the death of Bernhard at Attigny. 822 Founding of New Corvey, the first monastery in what was once totally pagan Saxony. 822 Lothair I. Ruler of Italy. 822-855 Insurrection of the Byzantine general, Thomas, in Anatolia. 822-824 Instigated by the Arabs, Thomas attempts to take Constantinople twice. He is finally defeated and executed in Thrace. Famine. England. Thousands perish. 822-823 Famine. Scotland. Thousands perish. 822-823 Abd-al-Rahman II, Amir of Spain (Cordoba). Umayyad. 822-852 Hrabanus Maurus. Becomes abbot of Fulda. 822 Founding of the Slav state of Moravia by Mojmir (rules 822-846). 822 Mojmir is baptized a Christian (822). Birth of Charles, the Bald, son of Louis. 823 Amalarius of Metz. “De ecclesiasticus officiis.” First edition. 823 Includes many errors concerning the Eucharist. Ebbo mission to the Northmen (Vikings). 823 Ireland is struck by “a great dearth.” 824-825 Thousands perish. Pope Eugenius II. 824-827 Aghalabids of Tunisia land in Sicily and begin to gradually conquer it. 827 Michael, the Stammerer, Byzantine Emperor. Sends Louis the Pious, the Greek manuscript of a book, “The Celestial Hierarchy” that is believed to have been written by Dionysius the Areopagite. 824 Battle of Ellandum. 825 Defeat of Mercia by Egbert of Wessex. In England, Egbert of Wessex defeats the invasion of Beornwulf of Mercia at Ellandum (modern Wroughton, Wiltshire) destroying Mercian power. End of the supremacy of Mercia over Wessex. Pavia, Italy becomes a center of science, education, and learning. 825 Japan imports Buddhist paintings of the T’ang era from China. 825 Fall of Crete to the Moslems. 826 Mohammedans expelled from Omayyad ruled Spain capture Crete. The Moslems use Crete as a base to plunder the Greek islands from there. They will ravage the eastern Mediterranean Sea until 961. Baptism of Harold, King of Denmark, together with his son and four hundred of his followers (at Mainz). 826 Harold returns back to Denmark with the Christian monk Ansgar (801-865). St. Ansgar begins preaching in Denmark. Ansgar will spread Christianity throughout all of pagan Scandanavia. Death of St. Theodore Studites (759-826). Defended the anti-iconoclastic position. Nov. 11, 826 The body of Saint Mark the Evangelist is taken from Alexandria, Egypt and brought to Venice, by a fleet of ten ships. 827 Gregory IV. Pope. 827-844 Invasion and conquest of Sicily (Palermo and Messina) and Sardinia by the moslems (Aghalabid emirs from Tunisia). June 827 They have 1000 men. The Mohammedans establish themselves in Sicily. The process of the conquest will continue from 827 to 878. The Mohammedan occupation of Sicily will last for 264 years until 1091. The Bulgars raid Pannonia and Croatia. 827-829 Embassy from Michael the Stammerer, the Byzantine Emperor, to Louis the Pious, the King of the Franks. 827 Egbert, King of Wessex. 828 Victorious over his neighbors, Egbert consolidates what is the first English Kingdom, becoming the first ruler to unite the English. Egbert, King of Wessex, is recognized as overlord or king over all of the other English kingdoms: Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Essex, East Anglia, and Northumbria. Egbert founds the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy (“Seven Kingdoms”) and becomes the first king of all of England. Egbert rules as King of England 828-839. Founding of the first Church of Saint Mark’s, Venice, Italy. c.828 Founded to house the body of St. Mark the Evangelist. “Astronomical System” of Ptolemy (d.c.178) is translated from ancient Greek into Arabic as the “Almagest.” 828 Nennius (Nynniaw). Welsh monk. Writes his “Historia Britonum.” c.828 (“The History of the Britons”). Death of Byzantine Emperor Michael II, the Stammerer. 829 He is succeeded by his son Theophilus I. Theophilus I is an Iconoclast like his father. Rules 829-842. Unsuccessful rebellion of the Copts in Egypt against Mohammedan (Abbasid) rule. 829-830 St. Donatus (d.c.876). Irish. On his way back to Ireland from a pilgrimage to Rome, Donatus stops off at Fiesole, Italy where he is elected Bishop. 829 Arrival of St. Ansgar, a German bishop, in Sweden. St. Ansgar founds the first church of Scandinavia at Bjorko. 829 Egbert, King of Wessex, annexes Mercia. 829 Eanred of Northumbria does homage to Egbert, King of Wessex. 829 “Annales Regni Francorum.” The official chronology of Frankish (French) history is concluded. 829 Milfred (Mercian) rebuilds in stone the small church containing the body of Ethelbert (d.616), King of Kent. 830 This will be the site of the future Hereford Cathedral which will be built 1079-1250. Al-Khowarizmi. Arabic. Treatise on Algebra. c.830 Gives methods for the solution of equations of the first and second degree with positive roots. Louis the Pious changes his inheritance settlement to provide for Charles, his son by his second marriage. 830 Rebellion of the three sons of Louis the Pious, and succession of quarrels between them until the death of Louis. 830-833 Einhard (770-840). “Vita Caroli Magni.” ca.830 (“The Life of Charlemagne”). Fall of Palermo, Sicily to the Aghlabids (based in Tunis). 831 St. Ansgar is made Bishop of Hamburg by the Pope. 831 Ansgar’s assignment is the conversion of pagan Scandinavia. Hamburg will be raised to an archbishopric in 832. Hamburg becomes a springboard for northern missions. Malamir. Rules the Bulgars. 831-852 Founding of the Venetian Order of Saint Mark. c.831 This is the oldest order of chivalry. “Utrecht Psalter” illustrated. c.832 Produced at Rheims. Invasion of Egypt by the Caliph (Abbasid) Mamun. 832 Kenneth MacAlpin, King of Kintyre, King of the Scots (839). Conquers the Picts (844) and unites most of Scotland. c.832 He will become the sole monarch of Scotland. Theophilus I, Iconoclast Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Promulgates a new Iconoclast edict against anti-iconoclasts and pushes their persecution to the limit. 832 Al-Mamun, Arab (Abbasid) Caliph, dies. 833 After the reign of Al-Mamun, the power of the caliphs begins to decline, but only temporarily. Al-Mamun is succeeded by Al-Mu’tasim, who forms a corps of Turkish troops. Beginning of Turkish domination. Reign of Al-Mu’tasim (Abbasid Caliph). 833-842 Second rebellion of his son and subjects of Louis I, the Pious. June 833 King Louis I is deserted by his army and imprisoned by his oldest son, Lothair, who acts as sole ruler. Reconquest of Burgos (Spain) by the Christians from the Mohammedans. 834 Part of the Reconquista of Spain (711-1492). Louis I, the Pious, is rescued by loyalists and reinstated at Metz. 834 Restoration of Louis I, the Pious, to the throne of the Frankish Empire. Lothair, the oldest son, returns to his sub-kingdom in Italy. The Vikings begin to raid the Continent. 835 Devastation of Frisia by the Vikings (Norsemen). The Danish Vikings attack and ravage the Isle of Sheppey, in eastern England. 835 Famine. Wales. 836 Ground is covered with the bodies of men. Thousands perish. The sack of London by the Danish Viking barbarians. 836 Beginning of new invasion of England by the Vikings. St. Philibert-de Grandlieu, in France. 836-853 Built to contain the shrine of Saint Philibert. New (fourth) division of the Frankish Empire between King Louis the Pious and his son Lothar I. 837 Battle of Hingston Down. 837 (Part of the Danish Invasions of England). Battle between Wessex and the Danes (Vikings). Ecgberht of Wessex defeats the Danes at Hengestesdun (Hingston Down). Sack of Marseilles, France by the Arab Mohammedans. 837 The Mohammedans invade Southern Italy. 837-840 Naples fends off the Arab attack. Arab Mohammedans settle in Southern Italy. The Mohammedans crush a revolt at Toledo, Spain by Jews and Christians. 837 Byzantine Empire is forced to go to war against the invading Mohammedan forces. 837-838 Antwerp is ravaged by Viking barbarians. 837 Battle of Amorium (in Asia Minor). 838 Between the Mohammedans under the Caliph Al-Mutassem, and the Byzantines under Theophilus (iconoclastic Byzantine emperor). Arab Mohammedans defeat the Byzantine army. Al-Mutassem then lays siege to Amorium. After a defense of 55 days, which cost the besiegers 70,000 men, the gates are opened by treachery. The Mohammedans massacre 30,000 Christian defenders. Amalarius of Metz is condemned for heresy and dismissed from Lyons. 838 Fifth partition of the Frankish Empire. 838 Louis I, the Pious (d.840) divides his empire among his sons Lothair, Louis the German, and Charles the Bald. Charles the Bald, son of Louis the Pious, receives Neustria and Aquitania - roughly the area of medieval France. Bodo-Eleazar. Converts to Judaism. 838 Teaches that the Messiah would come in the year 867 and that Jesus was not the Messiah but a regular man created by God. The Bulgars take Serbia. 839 Death of Egbert of Wessex, King of England. 839 His son Ethelwulf is made King of England. Ethelwulf rules as King of England 839-858. Reconciliation between Louis I, the Pious, and his son Lothair (Lothar). 839 Sixth partition of the Frankish Empire. 839 Kenneth MacAlpin becomes King of the Scots. 839 Louis I the Pious suppresses a revolt by his son Louis the German. 840 Moimir. Forms a confederation of Slavic tribes in Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, Hungary, and Transylvania. 840 Death of Louis I, the Pious, Frankish Emperor. 840 He is succeeded by his son Lothaire (Lothar) I. Lothaire I rules 840-855. His brothers Louis, the German, and Charles II, the Bald, are allied together against him. Piast Dynasty (c.840-1370) rules in Poland, after gaining control over the Slavs in the region. c.840 Kingdom of Navarre. 840-1512 Battle of Southampton. 840 English, under Ealdorman Wulfheard, repel a Viking attack on Southampton. Danish Vikings found the cities of Dublin and Limerick in Ireland. 841 Battle of Fontenoy (Frontenai). June 25, 841 Lothaire I is defeated by his two brothers Louis, the German, and Charles, the Bald, but remains emperor until his death. Wu Tsung. Emperor of China. 841-846 Persecution of Christians in China under the Taoist emperor Wu Tsung. Vikings (Norsemen) invade northern France. 841 The Northmen plunder Rouen and advance on to Paris. 841 Vikings (Norsemen) slowly begin to settle in what will be Normandy. 841 Oaths of Strasbourg. 842 First record of the final separation of the French and German languages. Church of St. Maria de Naranco, near Oviedo, Spain. Begun. 842-848 Turkish mercenaries join the Arab Mohammedan armies. 842 Death of Theophilus I , iconoclast Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 842 Theodora, his widow and regent, repeals all of the iconoclastic decrees against images proclaimed by the iconoclastic emperor. Methodius is named Patriarch of Constantinople. Michael III, “the Drunkard.” Byzantine Emperor. 842-867 Theodora is regent 842-857. Michael III is three years old at this time. Ethelwulf is defeated by the Danish Vikings at Charmouth. 842 Fall of Messina, Sicily to the Mohammedans. 842 Ramiro I. King of Asturias, Spain. 842-850 Al Wathiq is Arab Caliph (Abbasid). 842-847 Arab caliphate is temporarily in decline under his rule. Al Wathiq attempts to return to the Sunni version of Mohammedanism. Walafried Strabo (808-849). Restored as Abbot of Reichenau. 842 Writes his “Glossa Ordinaria” to the Holy Scriptures. Saint Methodius. Constantinople. Finally restores the icon as an object of veneration after a long period of Byzantine iconoclasm. 843 Christian art is allowed once again in the Byzantine Empire. End of Iconoclasm. The Iconoclastic Heresy is formally condemned throughout the Church and empire. The Iconoclastic Controversy is finally resolved in favor of the admittance of images, paintings, etc. Treaty of Verdun. 843 Seventh partition of the Frankish Empire. Division of the Frankish (Carolingian) Empire (the dominions of Charlemagne). The Carolingian kingdom is divided into three separate states among the three sons and heirs of Louis I (d.840). Ludwig II (Louis), the German, receives the East Frankish kingdom (territory east of the Rhine River, which roughly forms the basis of modern Germany). Charles I, the Bald, receives the West Frankish Kingdom (roughly modern France). Rules 843-877. Lothar I remains emperor. Lothar I receives much of Italy, Alsace-Lorraine, Burgundy, and the Low Countries. This narrow middle part of the empire was called Lotharingia (or Francia Media). The Partition of the Carolingian Empire at Verdun begins the history of Italy, France, and Germany as actually separate states. Emperor Lothaire I. Rules 843-855. Charles, the Bald. Rules 843-877. Louis II, the German. Rules 843-876. Carolingian Kings of France. 843-987 Carolingians in Germany. 843-911 Carolingians in Italy. 843-875 Nithard. “History of the Sons of Louis the Pious.” 843-845 Emperor Lothair I has his son Louis crowned King of Italy by Pope Leo IV in Rome. 844 Pope Sergius II. 844-847 Viking raid on Seville, Spain is repulsed. 844 Kenneth MacAlpine, King of the Scots. Conquers the Picts. Founds a unified Scotland. 844 New kingdom is known as Alban. First attack of Norsemen (Vikings) on Paris. 845 The Danish Vikings, who have been scouring the shores of the North Sea, the English Channel, and the Atlantic since 830, advance up the Seine River as far as Paris. The Vikings have 120 ships with them. King Charles the Bald realizes he has no chance against the horde of Northmen and pays them 7,000 pounds of silver to withdraw. The Vikings pillage Paris. Treaty of St. Benoît-sur-Loire. Between Charles the Bald and Pepin. 845 Vivian Bible. 845 One of the earliest illustrated manuscripts, written in Tours. Hincmar of Reims (b.c. 806-882). 845-882 Consecrated archbishop of Reims. Destruction of Hamburg by the Northmen (Danish Vikings). 845 Penetration of the Northmen into Germany. St. Anskar leaves Hamburg and sets up new base at Bremen. Bremen replaces Hamburg as a center for the evangelization of Germany. Caused by the destruction of Hamburg by the Viking barbarians. 845 Great famine throughout Bulgaria. 845 Thousands perish. Wu Tsung. Taoist (Taoism) Emperor of China (841-846). All foreign religions, including Buddhism, are outlawed in China. 845 4,600 Buddhist temples are destroyed throughout China. 250,000 Buddhists are driven out of the monasteries. Introduction of paper currency in China. 845 Leads to inflation and state bankruptcy. Battle of Clavijo. 845 Ramiro I, King of the Asturias, defends his domains against a Mohammedan attack at Clavijo. The Mohammedans sack and pillage the city of Rome. 846 The Mohammedans from Kairouan invade Italy from Sicily. They land at Ostia and sail up the Tiber River to Rome. They attack and pillage Rome. They damage and plunder the Basilica of St. Peter, St. Paul’s, and many of the other Roman churches. They violate the Tomb of Saint Peter the Apostle. They occupy one quarter of the city. This event will lead to the construction of defensive walls around the Basilica of St. Peter by Pope Leo IV (the Leonine Walls). Destruction of the Venetian fleet by the Arab Mohammedans. 846 Louis, the German. Campaigns in Bohemia. Defeats Moimir of Moravia. 846 Death of Moimir I, Prince of Moravia. He is succeeded by Rastislav. 846 Battle of Licosa. 846 Sergius, Duke of Naples, defeats the Moslems at sea. St. Ignatius (d.877). Anti-Iconoclast. Appointed Patriarch of Constantinople. 846 Mutawakkil. Caliph (Abbasid). 847-860 Lothar, Frankish emperor. Sends his son, Louis II, with a force of Franks to drive the Mohammedans out of Italy. 847 Louis II drives the Mohammedans out of Benevento, Italy. Johannes Scotus Erigena (810-877). Irish born. Appointed head of the court school at Paris for the Frankish King Charles the Bald. Writes translations and philosophical works. 847-877 Saint Leo IV. Pope. 847-855 Birthplace: Rome. Construction of the Leonine Wall around the Vatican hill by Pope Leo IV. Built to defend St. Peter’s from Mohammedan attacks. 847-848 Church of St. Maria de Naranco, near Oviedo, Spain. Completed and consecrated. 848 St. Miguel de Lino. Spanish church. 848 Gottschalk of Orbais begins to spread his false doctrines pertaining to predestination and Free Will. 848 Council of Mainz. 848 Condemns Gottschalk of Orbais for his heretical teachings involving Free Will and predestination. He will also be condemned by the Council of Quierzy in 853. Birth of Aelfred the Great (b.849-d.899). 849 Replacement of Buddhism by Hinduism and Jainism in India. c.850 Founding of the University of Salerno (Italy). 850 Swedish tribe, the Rus (Varangians) move down Russian rivers toward the Black Sea. c.850 Development of feudalism in Western Europe. c.850 Photius (820-893). Greek iconoclast. “Bibliotheca”. Extracts from ancient lost books. c.850 Bulgarian Empire on the Volga River, with the capital at Bolgary. 850 Lothar shares the Imperial throne with Louis II. 850 Norsemen settle at the mouth of the Loire and Seine. 850 Rurik, a Northman, makes himself ruler of Novgorod and Kieff (Kiev). 850 Ordono I. Christian King of Asturias. 850-866 Collapse of Tibetan power. 850 Eric I (Haarik). King of Denmark. 850-854 Beginning of the settlement of Jews in Germany. c.850 Development of their own language: Yiddish. Paris is crippled by famine. Thousands perish. 850 Western polyphonic music (polyphony) is evolving in Europe. c.850 St. Eulogius (d.859). “Exhortation to Martyrdom.” 850 Written during the attacks on Christians in Spain by the Mohammedans. The Mohammedans conquered Spain in 711. Battle of Aclea (Oakley). 851 (Part of the Danish Invasions of England). Appearance of 350 Viking ships at the mouth of the Thames River. Entry of Danish forces into the Thames estuary. They land, march, and sack Canterbury Cathedral. Vikings burn London. Ethelwulf, King of Essex, crushes the Danish barbarian invasion force with great slaughter at Aclea (Oakley) in Surrey. Johannes Scotus Erigena (810-877). Irish. “De Divina Praedestinatione.” Written. 851 Earthquake in Rome. 851 Famine in Germany. Thousands perish. 851 Famine in Italy. Thousands perish. 851 St. Swithin. Named Bishop of Winchester. 852 Mohammed I (Mahomet). Umayyad Amir of Cordoba (Spain). 852-886 Mohammedans under Mohammed I (Mahomet) attack Galicia, Léon, and Navarre in Spain. 852 Boris I (Michael Simeon). Bulgarian khan. 852-889 Boris I is the first Christian King of Bulgaria. He will convert from heathenism in 864. The Germans defeat the Bulgarians led by Boris I. 853 Council of Quierzy. 853 Condemns Gottshalk of Orbais once again (see 848) for his heretical teaching regarding Free Will and predestination. War between Charles the Bald and Louis of Germany. 853 The Vikings set up a kingdom in Ireland, with its capital in Dublin. 853 Aelfred (b.849-d.899) is sent to Rome. 853 Founding of Gandersheim Abbey and Essen Minster. 853 Eric II (Haarik). King of Denmark. 854-883 Johannes Scotus Erigena (810-877). Irish. Makes Irish translations of Latin texts written by Pope Gregory. 855-860 Lothar I (emperor since 840). 855 Divides his empire among his three sons. Lothar I dies. Lothar I is succeeded by Louis II who continues as King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor (until 875). Charles (to 863) receives Provence and southern Burgundy. Lothar II receives part of Austrasia (Lorraine-Lotharingia -- renamed after him). Louis II (son of Lothaire I) ruler of Italy. Declares that all Jews must leave the kingdom. No Jew is to show his face after Oct. 1, 855. 855 Aethelwulf, King of England (reign: 839-858). Takes his son Alfred (849-899) on a pilgrimage to Rome. 855 Alfred is only six years old. Pope Benedict III. 855-858 Johannes Scotus Erigena (810-877). Condemned by church council for his false teachings on Free Will. 855 “The Ascension of Christ.” 855 Fresco at the lower Church of St. Clement, Rome. Famine. Scotland. 856-860 Mass starvation for four years. Thousands perish. End of Lombard reign in Taranto, Italy. 856 Rebellion of Ethelbald against his father Ethelwulf, King of England. 856 Ethelbald rules 856-860. The destruction of Corinth, Greece by a massive earthquake. Dec. 856 46,000 are killed. Continued Viking invasions of England. 856-878 Wessex leads English resistance to full scale attacks by Danish Vikings. First report of ergotism epidemics in western Europe. 857 Caused by poisoned grain. Controversy between St. Ignatius and Photius at Constantinople over Iconoclasm (the Iconoclastic heresy). 857 Photius challenges the right of popes to rule in the Byzantine Empire. Deepens the breach between Rome and Constantinople. The Greek Church will finally separate from the Roman Catholic Church at Rome in 1054. Michael III. Byzantine Emperor. Deposes and exiles the aged St. Ignatius, the rightful Patriarch of Constantinople, and makes Photius the Patriarch of Constantinople. 858 Photius, a layman, is made Patriarch of Constantinople (858-867 and then again 877-886). Deepening of the schism between the Western Church and the Byzantine Empire during his reign (the Photian Schism). 858 Patriarchate of Photius (858-867 and 877-886). 858-886 In Constantinople. Photius is a bitter enemy of the Catholic Church at Rome. Saint Nicholas I, the Great. Pope. 858-867 Birthplace: Rome. Nicholas I is a powerful arbiter of Roman Christendom. Sack of Algeciras by the Vikings. 858 The Vikings will be expelled by the Moslems in 859. Ethelwulf is made to share his throne with his son Ethelbald. 858 Death of Ethelwulf, King of England. 858 Ethelbald of Wessex becomes King of England. Ethelbald rules 858-860. Johannes Scotus Erigena (810-877). Translates Dionysius the Areopagite from Greek into Latin. 858 Entry of the Norse barbarians into the Mediterranean Sea after rounding the Strait of Gibraltar. 859 The Vikings sack the coast up to Asia Minor. Viking ships winter on the Rhône River delta. Mohammedans capture Castrogiovanni, Sicily (present day Enna). 859 They massacre over 8,000 Christians. Expulsion of the Vikings from Algeciras by the Arab moslems that are ruling Spain at the time. 859 The Vikings (Swedes) are in the Ukraine. 859 Ashot I founds the Bagratide dynasty in Armenia. Rules 859-890. 859 Johannes Scotus Erigena (810-877). Is condemned once again by church council for his false writings pertaining to Free Will. 859 Martyrdom of Saint Eulogius of Córdoba. 859 He is beheaded by the Mohammedans. Death of Ethelbald, King of Wessex. Ethelbert (son of Ethelwulf) becomes king. 860 Reign of Ethelbert as King of England. 860-866 First expedition of the Varangians (Rus were Vikings from Russia) against Constantinople. 860 On June 18, 860, a force of 200 Viking ships descend on the Black Sea coast, and enter the Bosphorus. The Nordic soldiers surround the city. The Byzantine Emperor Michael III is with his army in the east on an expedition against the Mohammedans. The Vikings pillage Constantinople. Serbians check a Bulgarian force led by Boris I of Bulgaria. 860 Donald, brother of Kenneth MacAlpin. King of Scotland. 860-863 Gorm the Elder. Unites Jutland and the Danish isles and becomes the King of Denmark. 860 Vikings (Danes) sack Winchester, England. 860 The Vikings discover Iceland. 860 Michael III, Byzantine Emperor. Sends St. Cyril and his brother St. Methodius to convert the pagan Khazars in the Dnieper-Volga regions of Russia. 860 St. Cyril (825-869) and St. Methodius (815-884). They learn the Khazar language and work towards the conversion of the Khazars (Bohemian Slavs) from paganism to Christianity, linking them with the Eastern Church. 860-861 Sack of Paris, Toulouse, Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Worms by the Viking barbarians. 861 The Mohammedans continue their advance against the Christians in Spain. The Mohammedans had conquered Spain in 711. 861 “Codex Aureus” at St. Emmeram, Ratisbon. 861 Meeting of Boris, Khan of Bulgaria, and King Louis the German on the Danube River near Vienna. 862 Boris, Khan of the Bulgars, asks King Louis (known as “the German”) to send Christian teachers to his country to convert the Bulgars from paganism to Christianity. Ratislav, Prince and ruler of Moravia. 862 Asks Michael III, Byzantine Emperor, to send Christian teachers to his country in order to convert the Moravians from paganism to Christianity. St. Cyril and St. Methodius are appointed to lead the mission to the Moravian Slavs and the Bulgars in Bulgaria. 862 Death of Saint Swithun (Swithin). July 2, 862 Originally born in Wessex, England. The Vikings (Norsemen) are in Russia. 862 Rurik, with the Viking tribe of Russ (the Varangians), seizes power in northern Russia. 862 Rurik is the first grand prince of Russia (867-879). Founding of the Russian nation by Vikings under Prince Rurik. The Russians under Rurik, a Varangian (Scandinavian Viking) found Novgorod (near Baltic in western Russia) and make it their capital. The house of Rurik rules the Grand Duchy of Moscow and later all of Russia. The Rurik dynasty will rule in Russia from 862 until 1598. Baldwin I, the Iron Hand. Count of Flanders. 862-878 Al-Musta’in. Caliph (Abbasid). 862-866 The Magyars, a nomadic people from the area of Ukraine, move west and attack the kingdom of Louis the German. 862 Johannes Scotus Erigena (810-877). Irish. “De divisionae naturae.” Begins. 862-867 Arrival of St. Cyril and St. Methodius, “the Apostles of the Slavs”, in Moravia (the land of the Chazars or Khazars). 863 The two brothers are sent to the court of Ratislav of Moravia. Pope Nicholas I excommunicates the Byzantine Emperor Michael III. 863 St. Cyril (825-869) and St. Methodius (c.815-884). Present the Christian doctrine to the Bohemian and later the Moravian Slavs, linking them with the Eastern Church. 863-872 Constantine II, son of Kenneth MacAlpin. King of Scotland. 863-877 St. Cyril and St. Methodius. Develop the so called Glagolithic script (Old Slavonic alphabet - later will be called the Cyrillic alphabet) in order to translate scriptural and liturgical texts into the Slavonic language. They invent an alphabet called the glagolithic alphabet which marks the beginning of Slavonic literature (“St. Cyril’s Gospel”). c.863 Death of St. Nicholas Studites (793-863). Feb. 4, 863 Scotland. Plague accompanied by famine. Thousands perish. 863 Pope St. Nicholas the Great. Summons a synod at Rome concerning the controversy over St. Ignatius and Photius and the Patriarchate of Constantinople. 864 The Council deposes Photius and all of the bishops he had consecrated. St. Nicholas declares that St. Ignatius was and still is the rightful Patriarch of Constantinople. Louis II of France. Opposes the Pope. Invades Rome. 864 Kingdom of Barcelona in Spain. 864-1131 Boris I, Khan of Bulgaria. Converts from paganism to Christianity. 864 Invasion and occupation of Northumbria, England by the Danish Viking barbarians. 865 Introduction of Christianity (the Greek rite) into Bulgaria by Boris I the ruler of Bulgaria. 865 Death of St. Ansgar (c.801-865). Apostle of Scandinavia. Feb. 3, 865 Scandinavia lapses back into paganism after his death. St. Nicholas the Great. Pope (858-867). Reaffirms the primacy of Rome and apostolic succession. 865 Southern Italy is ravaged by the Mohammedans. 865 Photius (iconoclast). 865 Summons bishops of his own party. Declares that the Roman Catholic Church is advocating heresy. Proclaims the pope anathematized. Constantinople is sacked by the Vikings (Norsemen). 865 First naval expedition against Constantinople by a fleet of Russian Northmen (Vikings). Major Danish (Viking) invasions of eastern England start. 865 They conquer Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia. Death of Ethelbert. 866 He is succeeded by his brother, Ethelred, the third son of Ethelwulf. Ethelred I (King of Wessex). King of England. 866-871 Revolt of pagan boyars against Boris of Bulgaria. 866 Boris suppresses the pagan revolt. Boris of Bulgaria once again appeals to King Louis the German and Pope Nicholas I, the Great. “Responsa Nícolai Papae ad Consulta Bulgarorum.” 866 (“The Replies of the Pope Nicholas to the Questions of the Bulgars”). Pope Nicholas I responds to 106 questions of the envoys of Boris, Khan of Bulgaria. Robert the Strong is killed at Brissarth while fighting against the Viking barbarian invasion of France. 866 Danish Vikings occupy Northumbria. 866 Louis II drives the moslems out of Italy. The moslems are left in occupation of Bari alone. 866-867 Alfonso III (b.848-d.912), the Great. King of the Asturias. 866-910 Recaptures domains for Christendom in wars with the Mohammedans. Part of the Reconquista of Spain which began in 711. St. Cyril and St. Methodius. After approximately 40 months, they leave Moravia and enter Pannonia (modern day western Hungary). 866 The brothers are welcomed by Prince Kocel. They remain there for about one year, teaching in Old Church Slavonic. Battle of York. (Part of the Danish Invasions of England). 867 The Danish Vikings, under Ivarr the Boneless, besiege, and capture York. They establish a Viking stronghold in York, England. Al-Mu’tazz. Caliph (Abbasid). 866-869 Arrival of a Roman delegation in Bulgaria. 867 Pope Nicholas I the Great. Summons Cyril and Methodius to Rome. 867 The brothers first travel to Venice and then on to Rome. They will arrive in Rome in the autumn of 867. Death of Pope Nicholas I, the Great. November 13, 867 Pope Hadrian (Adrian) II. 867-872 St. Cyril and St. Methodius arrive in Rome. 867 Pope Nicholas I has recently died, so they are received by his successor, Pope Hadrian II. Hadrian II approves the Slavonic liturgy. Photian Schism (867-920) formally begins. 867 Michael III, Byzantine Emperor, presides over a synod which declares the practices of the Roman Church heretical. Declares Pope excommunicated on the day that Pope Nicholas I died. The Byzantine Church, led by Photius, the unlawful Patriarch of Constantinople, denies the supremacy of Rome, deepening the West-East schism. The final break will take place in 1054. Photius the Iconoclast disputes the use in the Western Church of the “filioque” clause in the Nicene Creed (the phrase “and from the Son” added to the statement that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father). 867 Photius, the unlawful Patriarch of Constantinople, is deposed. 867 Photius however will be reinstated once again in 877 (to 886). Death of Michael III, the iconoclast Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 867 Kingdom of Northumbria is finally destroyed by the Danish Vikings. 867 Basil I (Basil the Macedonian). Byzantine Emperor. 867-886 Basil I begins the line of Byzantine Emperors of the Macedonian Dynasty (867-1059). Begins the Basilian code. Johannes Scotus Erigena (810-877). “De divisione natura.” Completed. 867 Erigena attempts to reconcile Christianity with ancient Greek philosophy. They cannot be reconciled. Peace of Nottingham with the Danish Vikings. 868 Paris is again crippled by famine. Thousands perish. 868 St. Cyril (d.869) and St. Methodius (d.885) are consecrated bishops. 868 Tulun, makes himself independent of Egypt and later Syria. Tulunid independent dynasty in Egypt and Syria. 868-905 Eighth General Church Council. 869-870 The fourth Council of Constantinople. Hadrian II is Pope at this time. Condemns Iconoclasm. Anathematizes, condemns (869) and deposes Photius as usurper in Constantinople. Condemns the Iconoclasm of Photius. Confirms the decree of Pope Nicholas I against Photius. Death of Saint Cyril (825-869) in Rome. Feb. 14, 869 Earthquake followed by tsunamis on Sanriku Coast, Japan. 869 Thousands are killed. Caliph al-Mu’tazz (Abbasid) is murdered by his own troops. 869 He is succeeded by al-Muqtadi (869-870). Fall of the island Malta to the Arab Mohammedans. 869 Revolt of Negro slaves that are under Moslem slave masters in what is now southern Iraq. 869-883 The Eighth Ecumenical Council is re-convened on March 4, 870. Church in Bulgaria comes under Constantinople. March 4, 870 Expulsion of Latin clergy from Bulgaria. Treaty of Mersen. 870 Redivision of the Empire of Charlemagne (742-814). Partition of Lotharingia, the Middle Frankish Kingdom (except for Italy), between Charles the Bald (West Frankish kingdom) and Louis II, the German (East Frankish kingdom). St. Methodius (c.815-884). He is deposed by King Louis the German, as archbishop, and imprisoned. 870 He remains a prisoner for two and a half years. Johannes Scotus Erigena (810-877). Compiles his encyclopedia. 870 Muattemed (al-Mu’tamid). Caliph (Abbasid). 870-892 Re-establishes the capital at Baghdad. Danish Vikings invade England, conquering East Anglia and Mercia. 870 Battle of Hoxne. 870 (Part of the Danish Invasions of England). Conquest and occupation of East Anglia by the Danish Vikings. The Vikings kill St. Edmund, the last English king of East Anglia, and destroy Peterborough Monastery. By 871, only the Kingdom of Wessex is free from Viking control. 871 Louis II retakes Bari, Italy, the stronghold of the Mohammedans. 871 The Vikings (Danish barbarians) invade Wessex, England. 871 Battle of Ashdown. January 8, 871 (Part of the Danish Invasions of England). Between the West Saxons under King Aethelred and his brother Aelfred, and the Danish Vikings under Bag Secg and Halfdene. Due to the brilliant leadership of Alfred the Great, the Danish Vikings are defeated at Ashdown. A Viking victory would have led to the end of Christianity in England. Alfred the Great (849-899), the youngest son of Ethelwulf of Wessex, becomes King of England ( Wessex). 871 This is a time when the Danish Vikings are destroying the East Anglian, Mercian, and Northumbrian kingdoms and founding Danish colonies. Alfred the Great leads the resistance against the Danish barbarians. Reign of Alfred the Great (b.849-d.899), King of England. 871-899 During his reign he makes a treaty establishing Danish territory in England. Alfred is the only English king ever anointed by a pope at Rome. Pope John VIII. 872-882 Locusts destroy crops in England. 872 Famine follows. Thousands perish. Harold I Haarfager (Fairhair). Also known as Harold Halfdansson (son of Halfdan the Black). Defeats jarls at the Battle of Hafurstfjord. Harold Haarfager unifies most of Norway. Becomes Harold I, first king and sole ruler of Norway. 872 Harold I rules 872-930. Harold I (Haarfager or “Fair-haired”). King of Norway, son of Halfdan the Black. 872-930 The moslems attack Dalmatia. 872 Battle of Samosata. 873 Directed by Emperor Basil I, the Imperial cavalry drives eastward to take Samosata (Samsat) on the upper Euphrates River. First church built on the site of Cologne Cathedral. 873 Corvey Abbey, Germany. Built. Surviving Carolingian Church. 873-885 St. Methodius is released from prison at the insistence of the new pope, John VIII. May 873 He returns to Moravia. Paris is crippled again by famine. 873 Thousands perish. On their return from Salerno, Italy, the Mohammedans pour into Calabria, in southern Italy. 873 Disappearance of the twelfth Imam Mohammed ibn Hassan, a boy of ten years of age, whom the Khalif al Mutamid sought to kill. 873 Vikings (Danish barbarians) move north into Mercia. 874 After little resistance King Burgred abdicates. Danes take Mercia. Vikings from Norway begin to settle in Iceland. 874 Samanid Dynasty in Persia. 874-999 The moslems besiege Grado. 875 Árpád is chieftain of the Magyars. 875-907 Death of Louis II, king of Italy and Emperor in the West. 875 He is without issue. Charles II, the Bald, invades Italy and defeats the army of his brother Louis, the rightful heir of Louis II. 875 Charles II (the Bald) is crowned Holy Roman Emperor in the West (to 877) at the request of, and crowned by Pope John VIII. 875 Rebellion in France in the realm of Charles, the Bald. 875 Church of St. Pietro at Agliote, Italy. 875 This is the earliest known Italian Church to incorporate distinctive features of Romanesque architecture. The Byzantines begin the recapturing of Southern Italy from the Arab Mohammedans. 875 Byzantine forces recapture Bari in Southern Italy. Charles II, the Bald, invades the Lotharingian territory of Louis and is defeated at the Battle of Andernach. 876 Jews are banished from the City of Sens in France. 876 Danish Vikings settle in Northumbria, England. 876 Viking attacks on Wessex. 876 Second Roman expedition of Charles II the Bald. 877 Charles II the Bald leaves once again for Italy, in order to help Pope John VIII against the invading moslems. Death of Charles II the Bald, Holy Roman Emperor. 877 Further rebellion follows. Louis II, the Stammerer, (the son of Charles II the Bald). King of France. 877-879 Carloman, the son of Louis the German. Receives the kingdom of Italy. Rules 877-880. 877 Aelfred (Alfred the Great) defeats the Danish Vikings at Exeter. 877 Mercia is partitioned between the English and the Danish Vikings. 877 Egypt annexes Damascus. 877 Death of Johannes Scotus Erigena (810-877). 877 Battle of Chippenham. Jan. 878 (Part of the Danish Invasions of England). A large force of Danish Vikings from Gloucester, under their new leader Guthrum, overrun and ravage Wessex, England. Vikings defeat West Saxon army that is under Aelfred. Photius the Iconoclast. Reinstated as Patriarch of Constantinople. 877-886 After his defeat, Alfred (Aelfred) himself is forced to flee to the isle of Athelney where he rebuilds his military forces. 878 A decisive counter offensive is in the making. After seven weeks of harassing the Danish Vikings, Alfred the Great finally decides to lead his army against them. Battle of Edington. 878 (Part of the Danish Invasions of England). Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, decisively defeats the Danish Viking invaders at the Battle of Edington (then Ethandun). Alfred the Great captures Guthrum, the Viking leader. Alfred the Great prevents the Danish Vikings from conquering all of England. The Battle of Edington is one of the most decisive battles in English history. This battle ensured the survival of Wessex, the last remaining kingdom of the Saxon heptarchy (heptarchia). Peace of Wedmore. 878 England is divided between Wessex in the south and the Danish Vikings in the north, the Danelaw, as it was called. The Danish Vikings keep East Anglia, Essex, and part of Mercia. Guthrum, the Danish Viking chieftain, receives baptism. Fall of the city of Syracuse (Siracusa), Sicily to the Mohammedans. 878 Fall of Sicily to the Moslems. 878 Conquest of all of Sicily from the Byzantine Empire by the Arab Mohammedans (begun in 827). The moslems make Palermo, Sicily their capital. Taoarmina will fall in 902. Pope John VIII calls the Council at Troyes. 878 Pope John VIII. Excommunicates Photius the Iconoclast Patriarch of Constantinople. 879 Death of Rurik of Novgorod (in western Russia). 879 Rurik is succeeded by his nephew Oleg (rules 879-912). Oleg becomes prince of Kiev. Death of Louis the Stammerer. Partition of France. France is partitioned by Louis II’s sons. 879 Louis III is King of the North of France (rules 879-882). Carloman (his brother) is King of the South of France (rules 879-884). All of the nations of the known world are gripped in a terrible famine. 879 Thousands perish. Nepal gains independence from Tibet. 879 Beginning of the conversion of Russia from paganism to Christianity. 880 The conversion of Russia will take over one thousand years. With the communist revolution, Russia will fall to Marxist atheism. Second attack on the Byzantine Empire by the Vikings. 880 The Vikings are repulsed. Reconquest of Italy from the Arab Mohammedans by the Byzantine Emperor Basil I, the Macedonian. 880 Forces of the Byzantine Empire seize Tarentum in Southern Italy. 880 Founding of Benedictine Monastery at Monserrat in Catalonia, Spain. 880 Treaty between Alfred the Great and Guthrum, the Viking leader. 880 England is partitioned. Charles the Fat, the third son of Louis the German, is crowned Holy Roman Emperor (from 881 to 887) at Rome by Pope John VIII. 881 Defeat of Constantine II (son of Kenneth I), the King of Scotland, by the Danish Vikings. 881 Constantine II of Scotland is killed. Constantine II is succeeded by Eocha (881-889) as King of Scotland. Battle of Saucourt. August 3, 881 Louis III, of the West Franks (France), leads the Neustrians in a brilliant victory over a large force of invading Norsemen. The Carolingian king successfully repulses the Norse barbarians. Defeat of a large force of Northmen at Saucourt by Louis III, king of the North of France. Pope Marinus I. 882-884 Norsemen sack Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Prüm. 882 Charles the Fat is the sole King of Germany. 882 Death of Louis III, King of France. 882 Oleg (Rurik’s nephew). Varangian (Viking). 882 Expands his realm of Novgorod, inherited from Rurik, to include Kiev. Oleg makes Kiev the capital of Kievan-Novogodrian state (Russia), replacing Novgorod. Abdallah, Emir of Cordoba. 882-912 Eric the Red discovers Greenland. 882 Notker Balbulus (840-912). “Gesta Caroli.” A biography of Charlemagne. c.883 Epic poem on the life and deeds of Charlemagne the Great. Devastation of Italy by a terrible famine. 883 Thousands perish. Aelfred (Alfred) the Great (849-899). Sends envoys to Rome and India. 883 Gorm the Elder. King of Denmark. 883-941 The monastery of Monte Casino is attacked by the Mohammedans. 883 The monks flee to Teano near Capua. Death of Carloman, King of France. 884 Charles III, the Fat. Crowned Holy Roman Emperor and King of Germany. 884 Charles III becomes King of France (the Franks). Rules 884-887. The Carolingian Empire of Charlemagne is briefly reunited. Saint Adrian (Hadrian) III. Pope. 884-885 Birthplace: Rome. Death of St. Methodius (c.815-885). April 6, 885 Pope Stephen V. 885-891 Byzantines complete the recapture of Calabria in Southern Italy from the moslem forces. 885 Viking Siege of Paris. 885 Hundreds of Viking ships row up the Seine River with 40,000 men and lay siege to Paris. The Vikings are at the gates of Paris. The Viking siege of Paris will last for more than one year until 886. Charles the Fat refuses to take the field against the Vikings. Harold Fairhair unites Norway. 885 Ashot I of Armenia assumes title of king. 885 “Cantilène de Sainte Eulalie” (The Life of Saint Eulalie). France. First extant French poem. c.885 Battle of Montfaucon. 886 Count Odo (Eudes) of Paris repulses the Viking attack on the city. The Viking barbarians are forced to retire before the gates of Paris which they were besieging. The Vikings are totally defeated, losing 19,000 men in this terrible battle. End of the Viking siege of Paris that was begun the previous year in 885. Alfred the Great (849-899), King of Wessex, England. Recaptures London from the Danish Vikings. 886 Alfred also rebuilds and refortifies London. Treaty of Alfred the Great of England and Guthram the Dane. 886 Establishes the Danes in the Danelaw. England is split in two. Death of Basil I, Byzantine Emperor. 886 Leo VI, “the Philosopher”. Byzantine Emperor. 886-912 Leo VI, Byzantine Emperor (anti-iconoclast). Forces the iconoclast Photius to resign his position as Patriarch of Constantinople. 886 Al-Mundhir. Amir of Cordova, Spain. Umayyad. 886-888 Charles III, the Fat, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Germany, is deposed by an assembly led 887 by Arnulf of Carinthia at Tribur. Charles the Fat is deposed because of his refusal to defend the kingdom from the Viking barbarians. There will be no Emperor for four years until 891. Arnulf of Carinthia reigns as king of the East Franks (Germany). 887-899 Arnulf repulses invasions of the Slavs and the Vikings (Norsemen). Famine. England. Thousands perish. 887-888 Eudes (Odo), Count of Paris, is elected the King of West France. 888 Odo rules 888-898. Death of Charles III, the Fat, while he is in exile after his deposition. 888 End of the Carolingian Empire that was founded by Charlemagne. 888 Final breakup of the Carolingian Empire. Final separation of Germany and France. Occupation of Garde-Freinet on the coast of Provence France, by the Arab Mohammedans. 888 Berengarius (Berengar) I of Friuli. Becomes King of Italy (rival). 888-924 Abdallah. Caliph (Amir) of Córdoba. Umayyad. 888-912 The Mohammedans raid Lombardy in Italy. 889 Donald I. King of Scotland. 889-900 Regino. Abbot of Prum. 889 “De harmonica institutione.” A treatise on church music. Boris I of Bulgaria. Retires to a Christian monastery, which he had previously founded at Preslav. 889 Boris I of Bulgaria hands over power to Vladimir, his oldest son. Vladimir will attempt to restore the rites of paganism. Vladimir receives support of the pagan boyars who had revolted in 886. Peak of the Khmer civilization which ruled what is modern day Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and South Vietnam, from the capital at Angkor Wat. 889 The temple complex constructed at Angkor Wat is one of the largest religious centers in the world. This civilization will decline after 1434. Alfred the Great (849-899). Orders the writing of the “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” (891-1154). 890 Provides a primary source of early English history up until 1154. The first entry to the Chronicle will be made in 891. Alfred, King of Wessex. In an effort to protect England from the Viking barbarians, founds a regular army and navy. 890 Reliquary of the tooth of John, Carolingian jewel. 890 Scotland, “A great dearth”. Thousands perish. 890 Battle of Louvain. Sept. 1, 891 Arnulf of Carinthia, Emperor of East Frankland, defeats the Viking barbarians in a battle on the River Dyle (Louvain). Arnulf drives the Viking barbarians out of his kingdom. Pope Formosus. 891-896 Wido (Guido) of Spoleto, King of Italy, is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. Wido of the Widonid dynasty, rules 891-894. 891 The first entry is made in the “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” (overseen by Alfred the Great) which provides a main source for English history until 1154. 891 Albategnius (b.858). Arabic astronomer. Introduces the use of Trigonometry to Arabic astronomy. c.891 Lambert of Spoleto is crowned Emperor. Widonid dynasty. 892-898 Lambert is co-emperor with his father Guido (Wido). The Viking barbarians invade England with a fleet of 330 ships. 892 Al-Mu’tadid. Caliph (Abbasid). 892-902 Edward, the son of Alfred the Great, defeats the naval invasion of England by the Danish Vikings at Farnham. 893 Asser. Welsh Bishop of Sherborne. “The Life of Alfred the Great.” 893 During his life Asser helped Alfred the Great revive Christianity, learning, and education in England. Charles, the Simple, son of Louis the Stammerer, is King of France. He is the last Carolingian with real power in the country. 893-929 Rules from Laon. Arnulf, East Frankish (German) king. Repulses the Moravians with the help of the Magyars. 893 Boris I of Bulgaria (ruled 852-889) emerges from his retirement in order to put down a pagan revolt that is led by his son in Bulgaria. 893 Boris of Bulgaria deposes his pagan son Vladimir and installs his other son Symeon as Khan of Bulgaria. Vladimir is blinded and his name is omitted from the lists of rulers of Bulgaria which pass straight from Boris I to his son Symeon. Boris then returns back to his monastery where he spends the remainder of his long life. Reign of Simeon I, Czar (emperor) of the Bulgars, son of Boris I, and autocrat of the Greeks. 893-927 Simeon I drove the Magyars into Hungary and conquered most of Serbia. Simeon I founds the First Bulgarian Empire. The First Bulgarian Empire flourished during his reign, which is considered to be the Golden Age of Church Slavonic Literature. Simeon I replaced Greek with Old Church Slavonic as the official language of Bulgaria. Bulgarian monks translate literature available in the Byzantium Empire. Simeon I is Bulgarian prince 893-927 and the first Czar of Bulgaria 925-927. Earthquake. India. 180,000 dead. 893 Alfred the Great (b.849-d.899), King of Wessex. King Alfred produces with his scholars a translation of Pope Gregory’s “Cura Pastoralis” into English. 894 King Alfred was himself a scholar and an historian. Aelfred the Great. Drives Hasting, Danish Viking leader, from Wessex. 894 The Danish invasion force in England withdraws to Essex. 894 Wido (Guido) of Spoleto, Holy Roman Emperor, dies and is succeeded by his co-emperor and son Lambert. 894 Arnulf. Marches to Italy. 894 Svatopluk, King of Moravia. Dies after uniting Moravia, Slovakia, and Bohemia. 894 Expulsion of the Magyars from southern Russia. 894 Symeon I, the new Czar of Bulgaria, invades Thrace. 894 The Byzantines appeal to the Magyars for help. The Magyars have been expelled from southern Russia and are led into Hungary by Árpád. Bulgarians under Symeon I are at war with the Byzantine Empire. 894-897 Defeat and capture of the Danish Viking invasion fleet on the Lea River by Alfred the Great, King of Wessex. 895 Schola Medica Salernitana. c.895 Medical School at Salerno, Italy, is established by Christian monks. The curriculum merges Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Jewish influences. Ireland. Famine brings great dearth. Thousands perish. 895-897 Árpád, chief of the barbarian Magyars. Leads his people from Asia into Hungary where they settle. 896 Establishes the Árpád Dynasty (896-1301). Arnulf, the German King, claims the throne of Emperor (reigns 896-899). 896 Last of the Carolingian line of kings. Arnulf is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Formosus. Arnulf sets off to establish his authority in Spoleto but is seized by paralysis on the way. Pope Formosus dies. 896 Pope Boniface VI. April 896 Pope Stephen VI (May 896-August 897). 896-897 By 896, the nomadic Magyar barbarians, that were displaced from southern Russia and led by Árpád the Magyar chieftain, settle in the Middle Danube River valley. 896 Death of Photius, the iconoclast Patriarch of Constantinople. 896 Alfred, King of Wessex, and Edward, his son, end the Danish Viking threat to England. 896 Fighting will continue however until 921. Romanus. Pope. 897-898 Hasting, Danish Viking leader, leaves England. 897 Treaty between the Byzantine Empire and Bulgaria. 897 Concludes the war between them. War between the Bulgarians and the moslems. 897 Famine throughout France. Thousands perish. 898 John of Tivoli, becomes Pope John IX. 898-900 Charles III, the Simple. King of France. 898-922 The barbarian Magyar hordes arrive in northern Italy. 899-900 Invasion of Germany by the barbarian Magyars. 899 Death of Alfred the Great (b.849-d.899). 899 Eadward (Edward) the Elder, of Wessex, aged 29, (son of Alfred the Great) is King of England. 899-924 Conquest of the Danelaw by descendants of Alfred the Great. 899-921 Arnulf dies. 899 Louis III, the Child, reigns as king of the East Frankish kingdom (Germany). Louis III rules 899-911. Louis III is the last Carolingian king of Germany. Eastern Europe is ravaged by the Magyar barbarians. 899-943 Tenth Century Continuation of the Christian reconquest of Spain from the moslems, under Alfonso III, the Great, of Castile. 900 The Reconquista of Spain began in 711. The Reconquista will end in 1492. Constantinople is still the commercial and cultural center of the world. The religious center is Rome. c.900 The Byzantium Empire temporarily renews union with the Roman Catholic Church. 900 The Bulgars begin their conversion from paganism to Christianity (Eastern Orthodox rite). 900 Pope Benedict IV. 900-903 The Czechs gain the ascendancy over all Bohemian tribes. 900 Famine throughout England. 900 Constantine III. King of Scotland. 900-942 Vikings have developed the art of shipbuilding. c.900 Gunbjorn (Norseman), is blown off course while sailing from Norway to Iceland and discovers Greenland. 900 Sack of Palerno, Sicily by the Mohammedans. 900 Destruction of Reggio, Italy by the Mohammedans. 900 Entry of the Toltecs into the Valley of Mexico. c.900 The Toltecs extend their empire over central Mexico. Collapse of the Mayan civilization. 900 The Mayans relinquish their settlements in the lowlands of Mexico and emigrate to the Yucatan Peninsula. Paper manufacturing at Cairo, Egypt. 900 Moslem ornamentation (arabesques) develops out from late Greek and Byzantine art. 900 The Buddhist temples of Nara. These structures become the focal points of Japanese art. 900 The pyramid of E Vii Sub at Uaxactun, Guatemala. 900 Edward the Elder (son of Alfred the Great) takes the title “King of the Angles and the Saxons.” 901 Fall of Taormina (Byzantine) to the Tunisian Mohammedans. 902 The Mohammedan takeover of Sicily is now complete. The sack and takeover of Thessalonica (Salonika) by Mohammedans is led by the Saracen Leo of Tripoli. 904 They carry off 20,000 of the inhabitants as slaves. The Russian (Norsemen) fleet appears at Constantinople once again. 904 Pope Sergius III. 904-911 Alfonso III, of Leon and the Asturias. Continues the Christian reconquest of Spain. 905 The Reconquista began in 711. It will end in 1492. Kingdom of Navarre is founded in the north of Spain. 905 Sancho I Garcés rules 905-925. Destruction of the great library of the monastery at Novalesa by the Mohammedans. 905 The library contained more than six thousand five hundred volumes. Magyar barbarian invasion of Central Europe. 906 First Magyar invasion of Germany. 906 The Mohammedans attack the Abbey near Susa, west of Turin, Italy. 906 Destruction of the newly formed Moravian Empire by the Magyar barbarians that are advancing westward from Asia. 906-907 The Magyars undertake further raids into Italy and Germany. 907 Death of Boris, ruler of Bulgaria (ruled 852-889) in the monastery he has been in since 889. 907 Death of Árpád, founder of Hungarian monarchy. 907 Oleg, ruler of Russia. 907 Expedition against Constantinople. The Russians under Prince Oleg appear once again at Constantinople. The Russians secure rights of trade. End of the T’ang Dynasty in China. 907 Northern invaders of China end the T'ang Dynasty. Civil war and chaos exist in China (until 960). “Epoch of the Five Dynasties” follows. Khitan Mongols begin their conquest of Inner Mongolia and northern China. Completed 1123. 907 Death of St. Cormac, King of Munster, Ireland. 908 He is killed in battle. Establishment of the independent Caliphate of the Fatimid Dynasty (Shi’ite) in Tunisia (Kairouan), N. Africa. 909 Fatimid Dynasty: 909-1171. Al-Mahdi is the first Fatimid Caliph. 909-934 Cluniac monastic order is founded. 910 At the suggestion of, and with the help of William the Pious, Duke of Aquitaine, St. Berno (d.927) withdraws from the world and founds the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy. St. Berno is the first abbot of Cluny (from 910-927). Leo VI, Byzantine Emperor, is forced to pay tributes to the Magyar barbarians. 910 The Danish Vikings break the peace with Edward the Elder. 910 Battle of Tettenhall. Aug. 910 (Part of the Danish Invasions of England). Edward the Elder (son of Alfred the Great), King of Wessex (and England), defeats Northumbrian Danish army at Tettenhall in Staffordshire. The Kingdom of Asturias is renamed León. 910 Alfonso III, the Great, is its king. Garcia. King of León. 910-914 The Magyar barbarian s attack and crush Augsburg. 910 Founding of Normandy. 911 Treaty of St. Clair-sur-Epte. Rollo (Hrolf the Granger), Danish Viking chieftan, receives Normandy, France from the Franks (King Charles III) who are unable to dislodge him from France; capital is Rouen. King Charles III makes Rollo duke of all of that country that will be known as Normandy. One of Rollo’s descendants, the Normans, will later include William the Conqueror. Hrolf the Granger (Rollo). Duke of Normandy. 911-927 Death of Louis III, the Child (b.893-d.911). 911 Last Carolingian monarch. Extinction of the Carolingian line in Germany. End of the rule of Carolingian kings in Germany. Conrad I, Duke of Franconia. Reigns as the elected king of east (Germany). 911-918 Pope Anastasius III. 911-913 Treaty between the Byzantine Empire and Oleg of Russia. 911 Baptism of Rollo (Hrolf the Granger), the Viking. 912 His baptismal name is Robert. Rolf the Granger establishes himself in Normandy. The Northmen settle in Normandy. 912 Beginning of the conversion of the Vikings (Northmen) in France from paganism to Christianity. 912 Igor. Grand Duke of Kiev. 912-945 Succeeds Oleg. Moslem Spain is under the rule of Abd al-Rahman III, of Córdoba (Omayyad). 912-961 Ethelfleda, daughter of Alfred the Great. Erects the great earthen mound of Warwick Castle. 913 Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos. Byzantine Emperor. 913-919 Arnulf, a Bavarian prince, defeats the Magyar barbarian invaders on the banks of the River Inn. 913 Edward the Elder recaptures Essex from the Danish Vikings. 913 St. Miguel de la Escalada at León, Spain. Built. 913 Symeon of Bulgaria, the son of Boris, invades Thrace and Macedonia. 913 Bulgarians threaten but fail to take Constantinople. 913 Pope John X. 914-928 Fourth and last Viking expedition against the Byzantine Empire. 914 They are repulsed. Ordono II. Christian King of León (previously the Asturias). 914-924 Death of St. Tutilo of St. Gallen. Benedictine Order. 915 Catholic monk, sculptor, painter, and scholar. Church of Achtomar at Lake Van, Asia Minor. 915-921 Attacks by the Arab moslems in Italy on Reggio, Oria, and Tarentum. 915 Byzantine forces defeat the Mohammedans at Garigliano, Italy. 915 Berengar of Friuli (Lombard), of Italy is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. 915 Invasion of Egypt by Fatimid armies from Tunisia. 915 Consecration of the Benedictine Abbey church of Cluny. 915 The Danish Vikings renew their attacks on Ireland. 915 Death of St. Clement of Okhrida at Okhrida. July 17, 916 Expulsion of the Arab moslems from Central and Southern Italy. 916 Pope John X plays a crucial role in the expulsion of the moslems from central and southern Italy. Saxon leader, Edward the Elder, King of Wessex. Recaptures much of central and eastern England from the Danes. 917 He subdues the Danish Vikings of East Anglia and annexes Mercia. Plague and famine strike Kashmir, India. 917-918 The area becomes a vast burial ground. Unknown number of thousands die. The Jhelum River overflows with dead rotting bodies. Separation of the Bulgarian Church from both the Catholic Church at Rome and the Byzantine Church at Constantinople. 917 Symeon I of Bulgaria. Assumes the title “Czar of the Bulgarians and Greeks.” 917 Siege of Constantinople by the Bulgarians. 917 The Bulgarians defeat the Byzantine army at Anchialus (Achelous). 917 Battle of Tempsford. 918 Edward the Elder (son of Alfred the Great) defeats the Danish Viking leader Guthrum II. Guthrum II is killed. The Bulgarians defeat the Serbs. 918 St. Gerard de Brogne (d.959). Withdraws from the world and founds an ascetic monastery on his estate at Brogne, in what is now modern day Belgium. 919 The Danish Vikings defeat the Irish at Dublin. 919 Extension of the Byzantine Empire to the Euphrates and Tigris. 919 Heinrich I, Duke of Saxony. Elected Heinrich I (Henry), “the Fowler,” King of Germany. 919 Heinrich I founds Germany’s Saxon line or Ottonian Dynasty. Heinrich I reigns 919-936. Ottonian Dynasty. Saxon line rules the Holy Roman Empire. 919-1024 “Ottonian Renaissance” or “Ottonian Age.” 919-1024 Romanus I Lecapenus. Byzantine Emperor. 919-944 Co-regent with Constantine VII, Porphyrogenitos. Beginning of the conversion of the Bohemians (Bohemia) from paganism to Christianity. 920 Temporary reunion of the Byzantine Empire with the Roman Church. 920 By 921 all of the rulers in Britain and Scotland acknowledge Edward the Elder (the son of Alfred the Great) as their overlord. 921 Completion of the conquest of the Danelaw from the Danish Vikings. 921 Robert I. King of the Franks. 922-923 His grandson is Hugh Capet. Seizure of Morocco by the Fatimid Dynasty. 922 Battle of Firenzuola. July 29, 923 Rudolf, Duke of Burgundy, defeats Berengarius I, rival King of Italy, in this decisive battle. Symeon of Bulgaria devastates Greece and again threatens the city of Constantinople but without success. 924 Death of Edward the Elder of England. 924 Aethelstan, son of Edward the Elder, becomes king of Wessex and the effective ruler of most of England. Aethelstan rules 924-939. Assassination of Berengarius I. 924 Fruela II. Christian King of León. 924-925 Rollo (Hrolf the Granger) of Normandy. 924 Expands his territories. The Magyar barbarians cross the Alps and ravage Provence, France. 924 Byzantines forces defeat fleets of Leo of Tripoli off Lemnos. 924 The Magyar barbarians approach Saxony, but Henry the Fowler, rallies his forces against them. The Saxons capture a Magyar prince, and the Magyars sue for peace (a nine year truce). 924 Henry the Fowler. Develops a powerful system of castles and a strong army. 924-933 Henry I (Henry the Fowler) of Germany conquers Lotharingia (Lorraine) and adds it to the kingdom of Germany. 925 Alfonso IV, “the Monk”. Christian King of León. 925-930 Garcia Sanchez I. King of Navarre. 925-970 Martyrdom of St. Pelagius. 925 He is tortured to death by the Mohammedans for refusing to reject Jesus Christ and accept Mohammed. Beginnings of the Easter play. 925 Aethelstan of England. Drives Guthfrith out of Northumbria and annexes his realm. 926 Aethelstan forces the kings of Wales, of Strathclyde, of the Picts and Scots to submit to him. Hugh of Vienne. King of Italy. 926-945 Bulgarians under Simeon I attack Croat forces. 926 The Bulgarians are decisively defeated by Tomislav, the King of Croatia. Symeon I of Bulgaria, again marches toward Constantinople. 927 However, he dies in May 927. Upon his death Serbia breaks away from Bulgaria. Symeon I is succeeded by his son Peter. Peter I, Czar of Bulgaria, succeeds his father Symeon I. 927 Peter I rules 927 to 969. William Longsword. Duke of Normandy. 927-942 St. Odo. French. Succeeds St. Berno and becomes the second Abbot of Cluny (to 942). Odo establishes famous code of discipline for Benedictines. 927 The Magyars are in eastern Switzerland at St. Gall’s. 927 The Byzantine Empire is in the grip of a terrible famine. 927 Battle of Erzurum (Erzerum). 928 Byzantines campaigning in the east take the strategic moslem fortress at Erzerum in northeast Asia Minor. They are led by the brilliant Byzantine general John Kurkuas. Marozia seizes and imprisons Pope John X. 928 Wenceslaus (“the Holy”), Duke of Bohemia. 926-929 Henry I, King of Germany. Conquers the Slav province of Brennabor (Brandenburg). 928 St. Wenceslaus, Duke of Bohemia, is killed in Prague while he is on his way to Mass by his own brother Boleslav. September 20, 929 He is succeeded by Boleslav I, his brother and his murderer. Henry I subdues Bohemia and the Slavs east of the Elbe River. 929 Death of Charles the Simple. 929 Rudolph becomes the sole ruler of France. Abd-ar-Raman III, Emir of Cordoba, and Omayyad ruler of Spain. Takes advantage of the weakened Abbasid caliphate and declares himself caliph (first caliph of moslem Spain), in opposition to the Abbasid caliph that is based at Baghdad. Establishes autonomous caliphate at Cordoba, Spain. 929 He rules as caliph of Cordoba from 929-961. Marriage of Otto, the son of Henry the Fowler of Germany, to Edith, the daughter of Edward the Elder, the Anglo-Saxon King of Wessex. 929 Ekkehard of St Gallen (900-973). Benedictine Order. “Walter of Aquitaine.” Epic poetry. 930 (“Waltharius”). The Carmathians (Mohammedan) break into Mecca and carry off the Ka’aba (the Black Stone). 930 Ramiro II. King of León (previously the Asturias). 930-950 Famine throughout Wales. 931 Founding of Castile (Spain) as an independent kingdom. 932 Eric I Bloodaxe (Erik I Haraldson). King of Norway. 932-934 Famine throughout France. 932 Heinrich I. King of Germany. Withholds tribute payments demanded by the Magyar barbarians. 932 The Magyars resume their attack on Germany. Hugh, King of Italy marries Marozia. 932 St. John of Gorze (d.974). Enters the Benedictine monastery of Gorze. 933 Hrolf (now called Robert) of Normandy. Gains western Normandy, completing the Duchy of Normandy. 933 Battle of Merseburg (also called the Battle of Riade). 933 Henry (Heinrich I), German king, crushes the Magyars at the Battle of Riade on the Thuringian- Saxon border. This is the first severe defeat of the Magyar barbarians. 36,000 Magyars are killed. This ends the payment of tribute. Stops further Magyar invasions for the next 20 years. Eric I Blodöxe (English: Bloodaxe), King of Norway. 933-934 His cruelty leads to revolts. Norway is divided. Heinrich I, King of Germany, dominates Denmark (Danish Vikings). 934 Aethelstan, King of England, raids Scotland by land and by sea. 934 The Magyar barbarians begin a series of raids on Bulgaria. 934 Battle of Melitene. 934 Byzantines take Melitene, near the Euphrates River. Led by Byzantine General John Kurkuas. Abd al-Rahman III. Gathers a large army of moslems and moves toward the northern territories in Spain. 934 See Battle of Simancas (939). Haakon I Haraldsson. King of Norway. 934-961 Haakon I attempts to convert Norway from heathenism to Christianity. He briefly reunites the kingdom that has been divided since 933 because of Erik Bloodaxe. Invasion of China by Khitans from what is modern day Siberia. 935 Odo of Cluny (c.879-942). 935 “Dialogus de Musica.” Establishment of the Koryo kingdom of central Korea. 935 Koryo controls the whole of Korea. Confucianism replaces Buddhism. Marks the beginning of a distinct Korean culture. The Koryo kingdom will end in 1392. Death of Heinrich I (the Fowler) King of Germany. 936 Otto I (his son) becomes the new King of Germany. Otto I, is crowned King of the Franks at Aachen, the city of Charlemagne. Otto I reigns: 936-973. Constantinople is struck by a terrible earthquake. 936 Thousands are killed. Louis IV, d’Outremer. King of France. 936-954 “Grievous famine” in Scotland. 936 Thousands perish. Irish recapture Limerick from the Viking invaders. 936 Battle of Brunanburh. 937 Aethelstan, King of England, defeats an alliance of Scots, Celts, Danish Vikings, Norwegian Vikings, Britons, and Picts at the Battle of Brunanburh. Takes the title of “King of all Britain.” Final submission of the Vikings as a result of this great two day battle. Otto I, son of Heinrich I, dominates Arles (Burgundy and Provence) as protector of its young king Conrad. 937 Athelstan, King of England, founds Milton Abbey, Dorset. 938 Louis IV of France tries in vain to invade Lorraine. 938 Rebellions in Franconia, Bavaria, and Lorraine against Otto I. 938 Battle of Andernach. 939 Otto I of Germany defeats Eberhard of Franconia and other rebel dukes. By 939, Otto I has crushed rebellions by Franconia, Bavaria, Lorraine, and Saxony. Otto I confirms Saxon rule over all of Germany. Death of Athelstan, King of England. 939 Edmund I, “the Magnificent”, (son of Athelstan), King of England. 939-946 Battle of Simancas (also called Alhandega). July 939 Part of the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Ramiro II, King of León, defeats the moslems who are led by Caliph Abd al-Rahman III, in a terrible battle near the walls of the Spanish city of Simancas. The Christians of the Kingdom of León take back the city of Madrid from the Arab Mohammedans. 939 The Bogomils, followers of a Bulgarian sect, are denounced as heretics by the Byzantine Church. 940 The Mohammedans destroy the monastery of Saint Maurice d’Agaune in the Valais. 940 Harold Blaatand, “the Bluetooth”. King of Denmark. 941-991 “Bluetooth” is the first Christian King of Denmark. Rus Vikings attack Constantinople. 941 Igor, Prince of Kiev, crosses the Black Sea and plunders Bithynia. Reaches Constantinople with over 1000 ships, while the Byzantine fleet is in the Aegean Sea. The Byzantine fleet returns in time to drive off the Rus Vikings. The Byzantines almost completely destroy the Rus fleet by using “Greek fire.” The Danish Vikings in England make war on Edmund I. 941 Eadmund (Edmund) I, King of England. 942 Recovers lands that were previously conquered by the Viking raiders. Malcolm I. King of Scotland. 942-953 Richard I the Fearless. Duke of Normandy. 942-996 Building of Augsburg Cathedral. 942 Odo, Archbishop of Canterbury. 942-958 Saint Dunstan. Becomes Bishop of Glastonbury, and proceeds to revive monasticism in England on Benedictine lines. 943 Magyars attack the Bulgarians. 943 Byzantine troops penetrate deep into Arab moslem territory in order to recover the Mandylion, a unique icon which is believed to be a relic pertaining to Jesus Christ. 943 The Magyars suffer a major raid by the Patzinaks. 944 The Bavarians defeat army led by Otto I of Germany at Wels. 944 Lothair (Lothar) III. King of Italy. 945-950 Malcolm I, King of the Scots. Annexes Cumberland and Westmorland from the English. 945 Famine of long duration in France causes thousands of deaths. 945-946 In Russia, Igor is killed in battle with the Drevlinians. 945 Igor is succeeded by Sviatoslav (b.920-d.972). Sviatoslav, Duke of Kiev (945-972). Saint Olga is Regent however from 945 to 955. Death of Edmund I (murdered). 946 Succeeded by Eadred, the younger brother of Edmund I. Reign of Edred, King of England. 946-955 Saint Dunstan. Becomes the chief advisor of Edred, King of England (to 955). 946 Pope Agapetus II. 946-955 Famine. Italy. Thousands perish. 946 Otto I, of Germany. Supports Louis IV and advances to Paris and Rouen. 948 Founding of the bishoprics of Brandenburg and Haveberg. 948 The Lapps enter Norway. 948 Erik Bloodaxe (Viking) retakes York, England. 948 He is not King of Norway at this time. Northumbria declares Eric Bloodaxe of Norway, king of Northumbria. 948 Edred, King of England, ravages Northumbria. 948 Liutprand of Cremona. Lombard. Travels to Constantinople, in the service of the King of Burgundy. 949 Ordono III. King of León. 950-956 Church of St. Philibert of Tournus, France. 950-1120 Otto I of Germany. Crushes Boleslav of Bohemia. 950 Otto I puts Bohemia under Bavarian control. Berengarius II of Ivrea (grandson of Berengarius I of Friuli). King of Italy. 950-961 The priest Bogomil (Bulgarian form of Theophilus). Founds the Bulgarian based Bogomil heresy (Bogomilism). c.950 Toltecs make central Mexico the center of a Central American Toltec empire. c.950 Otto I of Germany. First campaign in Italy. 951 Otto I leads his armies into Italy against Berengar (Berengarius). Assumes the title of “King of the Franks and Lombards”. Otto I becomes King of the Franks and the Lombards. 951 Flood. Baghdad (Asiatic Turkey). 952 Overflow of the Euphrates River. Half of the city is submerged under water. Uncounted hundreds perish. The Mohammedans defeat the Byzantine Greeks in Calabria, Italy. 953 England, Scotland, and Wales. 954-958 Famine of four year duration. Plague. Thousands perish. Maieul. Abbot of Cluny. 954-994 Battle of Stainmore. 954 The Vikings attack a Saxon army at Stainmore in Westmoreland. The Saxons defeat the Norsemen. Erik Bloodaxe, the exiled king of Norway is killed. End of the Viking kingdom of York. End of the Danish Viking kingdom of York. 954 Eric Bloodöxe, the last Danish King of York, is killed. Lothair (Lothar), son of Louis IV, and nephew of Emperor Otto I, becomes King of France. 954 Rules 954-986. Otto I of Germany. Crushes revolts by the dukes of Lorraine and Swabia. 955 Battle of Recknitz (Battle on the Raxa). Oct. 16, 955 Otto I of Germany crushes the Wends (Slavs) on the Recknitz River. A Magyar force of 40,000 men puts Augsburg under siege, surrounding it completely. The defenders of Augsburg are led by the bishop St. Ulric. Otto I the Great, hears of the invasion and moves his army south in order to rescue Augsburg from the Magyar barbarians. 955 Battle of the Lechfeld. August 10, 955 Otto I, the Great, King of Germany, and a 25,000 man Christian army defeats 40,000 invading Magyar barbarians at the Lechfeld near Augsburg. One of the Magyar leaders, Bulcsu the Bloody, is captured and hanged. Seven Magyars are allowed to live, and are sent back to Hungary to tell the story of the battle. End of the westward advance of the Magyar barbarians. Otto I the Great defeats the Magyars so decisively that they will never again resume their invasions in the West. This battle ends the Magyar menace. Pope John XII. 955-963 Church of St. Michel de Cuxa. France. 955-974 End of the Regency of Olga in Russia. 955 Sviatoslav is Grand Duke of Kiev (955-972). Death of Edred. Succeeded by Edwy, son of Edmund. Reign of Eadwig (Edwy). King of England. 955-959 Exile of Saint Dunstan. 955-959 Attempts to advise and correct King Edwy of England. Edwy, King of England, banishes St. Dunstan from his kingdom. St. Dunstan goes to Ghent in Flanders. Hugh, the Great, of Burgundy dies. 956 He is succeeded by his son Hugh Capet. Armenia and the provinces between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, are recovered from the Mohammedans by the Byzantine Empire. 956 The Seljuk Turks accept Mohammedanism. 956 Sancho I. King of León. 956-966 In England, Mercia, and Northumbria revolt against Edwy, King of England, and make his brother Eadgar (Edgar) King (d.975). 957 Olga, the Russian Grand Duchess, travels to Constantinople. 957 Olga requests baptism. Flood. Baghdad. 959 Overflow of the Euphrates River. ¾ city is submerged under water. Unknown number of lives lost. Death of Edwy. Edgar, the Peaceful, younger brother of Edwy, is King of England. 959-975 Reign of Edgar, the Peaceful, King of England. Will be crowned in 973. Edgar, the Peaceful, King of England. Recalls St. Dunstan from exile in Flanders. 959 Saint Dunstan. Made Archbishop of Canterbury (959-988) by King Edgar, the Peaceful. 959 Attempts to reform the Catholic Church in England. Romanus II. Byzantine Emperor. 959-963 Mieczyslaw (Mieszko I) becomes the first ruler of Poland. 960 Beginning of the Polish Kingdom. Rules 960-992. Otto I, the Great, subdues the Slavs. 960 Founding of the Sung Dynasty (960-1279) in China by Tai Tsoo. 960 Tai Tsoo defeats the Tartars. Berengar II is raging through northern Italy. 960 Pope John XII asks Otto I the Great, for help against Berengar II. 960 Candia (Heraklion). Reconquest of Crete from the Mohammedans by the Byzantines led by Nicephorus Phocas. 960-961 Crete had been seized by the Mohammedans back in 826. St. Paul’s in London is rebuilt after a fire. 961 Otto I, the Great, King of Germany. 961 Undertakes his second expedition (ends in 964) to Italy in order to protect the degenerate Pope John XII from Berengar II. Berengarius (Bérenger) II submits to Otto I the Great as his suzerain. 961 Otto II (b.955-983), son of Otto I the Great. 961-983 German king. Church of St. Cyriakus (Romanesque style). Germany. 961-1000 First Christian monastic foundation at Mt. Athos, Greece. c.961 Abd al-Rahman II dies. 961 Al Hakkam II, the Pederast, becomes Caliph of Córdoba. Omayyad. Rules 15 years (961-976). Luitprand. Bishop of Cremona (961-971). 961 “Antapodosis.” Harold II Ericsson, surnamed Graafeld (“Gray skin” or “Graypelt”), King of Norway (son of Eric Blodöxe). 961-977 Otto I, the Great, arrives at Rome. January 31, 962 Emperor Otto I, the Great, is in Italy. 962 Otto I is accompanied by St. Conrad of Constance (d.975). Otto, the Great, (Otto I), King of Saxony. Dethrones Berengarius II of Ivrea. 962 Otto I conquers northern Italy. Otto, the Great, (Otto I), King of Saxony. Otto is crowned King and Holy Roman Emperor in the West by Pope John XII at Rome. February 2, 962 Otto I is the first Saxon to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. Otto I rules as king and emperor 962-973. Otto makes Rome the capital of his empire. Second revival of the Holy Roman Empire. Poppo of Slesvick. Convinces and converts Harold Blaatand, “the bluetooth”, King of Denmark and the pagan Danish Vikings by the ordeal by red hot iron. 962 Otto I (b.912-d.973). Claims control over the Lombards in Southern Italy. 962 “Privilegium Ottonianum”. Feb. 962 An agreement concluded between Emperor Otto I and the Pope in order to regulate relations between them. Alptigin. Founds Turkish principality at Ghazni, Afghanistan. 962 Frost causes famine in England. London is ravaged by plague. 962 Thousands perish. Otto I, the Great, leaves Rome. 962 Pope John XII falls back in league with Berengar II. In Rome, John XII foments a rebellion against Otto I. Otto I. At Pavia, hears of the pope’s doing, and rushes back to Rome. A synod deposes Pope John XII and replaces him with Pope Leo VIII. 963 Establishes imperial power over papal elections. Pope Leo VIII. 963-964 Otto I takes Berangarius prisoner. 963 St. Ethelwald. Bishop of Wincester, England. 963-984 Writes a translation of the Rule of Saint Benedict of Nursia, the founder of the Benedictine Order. Death of Byzantine Emperor Romanus II. 963 Nicephorus Phocas returns to Constantinople and takes the city. 963 Nicephorus II, Phocas. Byzantine Emperor. 963-969 Defeats the Bulgarians and Arab moslems. Conquest of Eastern Bulgaria by the Byzantine Emperor. 963-969 Al Sûfi. “The Book of Fixed Stars.” Astronomical work. 963 Famine in Ireland. 963-964 Thousands perish. Revival of Christian monasticism in England after the wars with the Danish Vikings come to a temporary stop. 964 The deposed (963) John XII finally dies. May 14, 964 Pope Leo VIII is expelled by the Romans. 964 Pope Leo VIII dies. Otto I removes the Anti-Pope Benedict V. 965 Otto I names John XIII Pope (965-973). The Romans refuse to accept him. Romans revolt again against Otto I. The Mohammedans are finally driven out of Grenoble. 965 Nicephorus II, Phocas, Byzantine Emperor. Recaptures Cyprus from the Arab Moslems. 965 Sviatoslav, Russian ruler. Crushes the Kazar empire on the Volga River. 965 Widukind of Corvey. “Saxon History” (“Res Gestae Saxonicae”). 965 St. Dunstan enforces the celibacy of the priesthood in England. 965 Fatimid moslems conquer Sicily. 965 Conversion from paganism to Christianity, of Mieszko in Poland. 966 Mieszko requests baptism. Under Mieszko (Mieczyslav I), the conversion of Poland from paganism to Christianity (Roman Catholicism) begins. 966 This event in 966 marks the founding of the nation of Poland. Church of St. Pantaleon in Cologne, Germany. 966-980 Otto I. Holy Roman Emperor. Third expedition (966-972) into Italy in order to war against the Byzantines in Apulia and to restore the new Pope, John XIII who had been deposed by the Romans (964). 966 Berengarius II of Italy. He is finally dethroned for his many crimes and dies in prison. 966 St. Oswald. 966 Founds Worchester Cathedral. Otto I attacks Bari in Apulia. 966 The emperor’s troops are repulsed by the Byzantines and are forced to retreat. Ramiro III. King of León. 966-982 Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona. Lombard. “The History of Otto I.” Written. c.966-971 Otto II. Son of Otto I, the Great. Crowned future emperor in Rome. Dec. 25, 967 Cuilean. King of Scotland. 967-971 Boleslav II. Duke of Bohemia. 967-999 Nicephorus II, Phocas, Byzantine Emperor. Requests that Svyatoslav, the ruler of Russia, send an army against the Bulgarians. 967 Sviatoslav of Russia invades Bulgaria and defeats the Bulgarians. Eastern Bulgaria is ravaged by the Russians. 968 Byzantines take Antioch. 968 Founding of Córdoba University, Spain. 968 Earthquakes and floods. Persian Gulf. 968 Earthquakes are followed by floods. Many Mohammedan cities are completely submerged under water. New islands are formed. Thousands are killed. Founding of the archbishopric of Magdeburg. 968 Great famine. Fustat, Egypt. 968 660,000 perish. Conquest of Egypt by Fatimate Arabs of Tunisia. 968-969 Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona. Lombard. 968 Is sent by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor, on a mission to Nicephorus II Phocas in Constantinople in the hope that his son will marry a Byzantine princess. Liutprand is humiliated and insulted by Nicephorus II Phocas and the Byzantines during his six month mission. Nicephorus II, Phocas, Byzantine Emperor, is killed by his nephew. 969 John I, Tzimisces, his murderer, becomes the new Byzantine emperor. John I rules 969-976. Sviatoslav, the Duke of Kiev, attempts to conquer Bulgaria and establish his capital south of the Danube River. 969 Sviatoslav crosses the Balkan Mountains and takes Philippopolis (Plovdiv). They continue south toward Constantinople. Birth of Vajk, the future Stephen of Hungary (b.969-d.1038). 969 Peter I, of Bulgaria abdicates and enters into a monastery. 969 Boris II. Czar of Bulgaria. 969-972 Fatimates (Fatimids) from Morocco conquer Egypt. 969 The Fatimids were a Shi’ite sect vehemently opposed to the Abbasids (Umayyad). A separate Fatimate caliphate is established in Egypt. Fatimid Caliphs of Tunisia rule Egypt. The Fatimates who captured Palestine, parts of Syria, and West Arabia will rule until 1171. The Fatimids (Shi’ite) actively attempt to overthrow the Abbasids(Umayyad) while they remain in power. Founding of Cairo, Egypt, as the capital of the Fatimates (Shi’ites). 969 Famine throughout the European continent. 969 Wind storms in England. 969 Grain crops are blown away. Famine follows. Thousands perish. Paulician heretics settle at Phillipopolis. Paulicians are Iconoclasts and Adoptionists (Adoptionism). 970 Paulicianism is named after Paul of Samosata. St. Lawrence Church of Bradford-on-Avon. 970 Saxon Church. Sancho Abarca. King of Navarre. 970-994 Kenneth II. King of Scotland. 971-995 Otto I, the Great, dispatches the first bishop to Hungary, Pilgrim, the bishop of Passau. 972 Bishop Pilgrim establishes the first episcopal sea in Estergom. Battle of Adrianople (Edirne). 972 Sviatoslav of Russia moves south toward Constantinople with an army of 60,000 men. John I Tzimisces, guardian of the young Emperor Basil II, marches out to meet the invading army with 30,000 men. John Zimisces defeats Sviatoslav near Adrianople, and with the aid of the Byzantine fleet on the Danube, forces the Russians completely out of Bulgaria. Sviatoslav and his survivors, on their way back to Kiev, are attacked by Patzinaks (Pechenegs). Sviatoslav is killed. Beginning of the conversion of the Magyar barbarians and all of Hungary from paganism to Christianity by Pilgrim, the Bishop of Passau. 972 Gerbert of Aurillac (later will be Pope Sylvester II). Master of the school of Rheims. c.972 Liberation of North Africa from Egypt. 972 Founding of Cairo University. c.972 Building of the second Church of Peterborough. 972 Otto II, son of German Emperor Otto I. Marries the Byzantine princess Theophano, the daughter of Romanus II. This adds Byzantine Italy (Apulia and Calabria) to the Holy Roman Empire. 972 John I Tzimisces, Byzantine Emperor. Defeats the Russians at Presthlava and Dorystolum. 972 Completion of the reconquest of Bulgaria from the Russians by the Byzantine Empire. 972 Liutprand of Cremona. Italian Bishop. Book “De Legatione Constantinopolitana.” c.972 Describes his mission to the Byzantine court at Constantinople. Conversion from paganism to Christianity of Géza, the Grand Prince of Hungary. 972 Géza is great grandson of Arpad (Magyar). Géza. Ruler of Hungary. 972-997 The Mohammedans capture St. Majoulus (Mayeul), the famous abbot of Cluny, as he is returning from Rome through the Alpine route of the Great Saint Bernard. 972 They ransom him. Liberation of the Sisteron district from the Mohammedans. 972 Liberation of Gap from the Mohammedans. 972 Edgar is formally crowned at Bath in the first coronation ceremony ever held for a king of a united England. 973 Umayyad (Omayyad) moslems of Spain defeat the Fatimad (Shi’ite) moslems of Morocco. 973 Death of Otto I, the Great (b.912-d.973). 973 Succeeded as emperor by his son Otto II (b.954-d.983). Otto II had been previously crowned in 967. Otto II rules as emperor from 973-983. Otto II (son of Otto the Great) sends word to Harold “Bluetooth”, the Danish Viking king, that he must convert from heathenism to Christianity, and that Denmark must become a Christian nation, or he will invade. 974 Harold Bluetooth sends word to his heathen brother Earl Haakon in Norway that he needs help. Earl Haakon responds with a large army and deploys it along the Danevirk. At first, the Saxons invade and are defeated. Otto II retreats and reinforces his army with Polish forces. Otto II renews his attack and finally prevails over Harold Bluetooth, King of Denmark. Harold Bluetooth and his brother Earl Haakon convert to Christianity. Otto II withdraws his army from Denmark. Harold Bluetooth remains a Christian but his brother Earl Haakon immediately reverts back to heathenism as soon as Otto II withdraws his army from Denmark. Pope Benedict VII. 974-983 Revolt of Bavaria led by Henry the Wrangler. 974-978 Otto II defeats Henry. Vikings from Norway begin colonization of Greenland. 974 Major earthquake in Britain. 974 Death of Eadgar (Edgar), King of England. 975 St. Eadward (Edward) the Martyr, son of Edgar, is King of England. 975-979 Paris, France. Mass starvation. 975 Thousands perish. Al-Aziz. Fatimid Caliph of Egypt. Shi’ite. 975-996 Battle of Damascus. 976 (Part of Byzantine-Moslem Wars). John I Tzimisces, Byzantine Emperor, defeats the moslems and takes Damascus, Syria. Otto II (son of Otto I, the Great). Crushes Danish Viking invasion. 975 William, Count of Arles. Recaptures Garde-Freinet from the Arab Mohammedans. 975 Founding of the bishoprics of Prague and Olomouc. 975 Byzantine forces capture Beirut. 976 Death of John I Tzimisces, Byzantine Emperor. Basil II, Bulgaroktonos (“Slayer of the Bulgarians”) becomes sole Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 976-1025 Samuel. Czar of Bulgaria. 976-1014 Great famine in England. 976 Thousands perish. Al Hakkam II, al Mustansir (the Pederast), dies. Hisham II. Caliph of Córdoba. 976-1009 The Mohammedan Omayyad (Umayyad) Dynasty of Spain temporarily declines under his rule. St. Mark’s Cathedral at Venice. Begun. 976 Built on the plan of a Greek cross (976-1094). Stephen I (975-1038). 977 Becomes ruler of the Magyars on the death of his father. Ghaznavid Dynasty (Mohammedan). Rules vast areas in Afghanistan, Iran, and northern India. 977-1186 Mohammed Ibn Abi Amir (Al-Mansur). 977-1002 Regent of Cordoba under Caliph Hisham II. Al-Mansur is the virtual ruler of moslem Spain. Mohammed Ibn Abi Amir (also called Al-Mansur). Reminds the people of Cordoba of the proclamation of the Jihad that was proclaimed by Mohammed the founder of Mohammedanism. 977 Al-Mansur proclaims that the moslems must not cease until every Christian has been either killed or driven from the Iberian peninsula (Spain and Portugal). Earl Haakon. King of Norway. 977-995 Continued invasions of Southern Italy by the Arab moslems. 977 Lothair of France. Sack of Aix-la-Chapelle by Lothair. The Germans advance to Paris. 978 Chinese encyclopedia. 1,000 volumes. 978-984 Edward the Martyr, King of England, is murdered at Corfe Castle. March 14, 979 He is succeeded by Aethelred II, the Rediless (the Unready), the younger brother of Edward the Martyr. Ethelred II, the Unready. King of England. 979-1016 Louis V is co-regent of France. 979 Defeat of Norsemen in Ireland by Malachi at Tara. 979 Arab Mohammedans begin conquering and settling along the east coast of Africa. 980 Seljuk, a Turk officer of the khan of Tartary, becomes a Mohammedan, and settles in Samarcand. 980 Vladimir recaptures Novgorod. 980 Captures and kills his half brother Yaropolk at Rodno. Vladimir becomes Grand Prince of Kiev. 980 Reign of Vladimir I (the future St. Vladimir), Prince of Kiev. 980-1015 When he is installed as the king of the Rus in Kiev, he sets up idols in the hills and has sacrifices made to his false gods. Harold “Bluetooth” renews Danish Viking attacks on England. 980 Vikings attack Chester, Southampton, and Thanet. “Antiphonarium Codex Montpellier.” 980 Musical manuscript. Mainz Cathedral. Begun. 980 Organ with 400 pipes at Winchester Monastery, England. 980 Avicenna (Ibn Sina). Arabian philosopher and physician. 980-1037 Abu’l Wefa. Arab. Further develops the subject of spherical trigonometry. c.980 Battle of Sofia. 981 (Part of Bulgarian-Byzantine Wars). Tsar Samuel of Bulgaria defeats army of Byzantine Emperor Basil II near Sofia (Bulgaria). Basil II is forced to return to Constantinople. Marks the beginning of the Bulgarian-Byzantine wars. Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor, marches from Germany to Rome. 981 Otto II restores Pope Benedict VII. Otto II, German Emperor. Launches a rash campaign to expel the Mohammedans from Southern Italy and Sicily. 981-982 Danish Vikings ravage the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, England. 981 Mohammed Ibn Abi Amir (also known as Al Mansur) defeats Ghâlib at Torrevicente. 981 Battle of Zamora. 981 Mohammed Ibn Abi Amir (also known as Al-Mansur). Takes Zamora, slaughters over 4,000 Christian prisoners. He destroys 1,000 villages in the area, and besieges Leon. Eric the Red, Viking, is exiled from his native Norway. 981 He flees to Iceland. Discovery of Greenland by the Vikings (Eric the Red). 981 Battle of Crotone (Cotrone). July 13, 982 Victory of the Arabs at Cotrone in Calabria on the Gulf of Taranto. Otto II, son of Otto I, is defeated by an alliance of the Byzantine Empire and the Mohammedans under the caliph of Egypt. Danish Viking raids on English coasts of Dorset, Portland, and South Wales. 982 The Vikings destroy London, England by fire. Harold Bluetooth’s Danish Vikings cross the “Danevirk” and attack cities in Northern Germany. 982 Great uprising of the Slavs east of the Elbe. 982 Slavs assault and destroy Saxon fortresses east of Magdeburg. Eric the Red, Viking from Iceland. Establishes the first Viking colonies in Greenland. 982 Otto II, son of Otto I. Defeated by the Mohammedans near Squillace. 983 Death of Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor. He is 29 years old. 983 His three year old son, Otto III (b.980-d.1002) reigns under the regency of his mother, Theophano (d.991), who in turn is guided by Gerbert of Aurillac, a French Christian monk. Otto III rules 983-1002 as German king and emperor. 983-1002 Rebellion of the Wends east of Elbe River against German rule. 983 Sack of Hamburg by the Wends. Al Mansur (Cordoba), on Jihad, lays siege to Barcelona for five days. He orders the population massacred, and the survivors enslaved. July 985 He first plunders and then burns the city of Barcelona. St. Alphege (954-1012). Appointed bishop of Winchester in spite of his objections. 984 Baptism of St. Stephen of Hungary (975-1038). 985 He is ten years old. Harold Bluetooth of Denmark. Pursues his son Svein, the bastard prince, with fifty ships. 985 They fight a sea battle but break off at dusk. Later that night Harold Bluetooth is shot with an arrow by one of Svein’s men, and bleeds to death from the wound. Svein becomes King of Denmark. Sweyn I, the Splitbeard (or Forkbeard). King of Denmark. 985-1014 Sweyn (Sven) I, Forkbeard, becomes King of Denmark and of Sweden (from 995). 985 He strengthens the power of the Danish crown. Sweyn I rules 985-1014. Beginning of quarrel between Ethelred II of England and the Witan. 985 Pope John XV. 985-996 Death of Lothair. His son Louis V is King of France. 986-987 Louis V is the last of the Carolingian rulers of France. Beginning of the rebuilding of Peking. 986 Eric the Red. 986 Sails from Iceland once again with a fleet of twenty five ships, to found a settlement in Greenland. Sabuktagin. Moslem Amir of Ghazni invades Punjab, India. 986 Louis V, King of France, while hunting, is thrown from his horse against a rock. May 987 He dies from his injuries. Louis V is the last of the Carolingian Dynasty of kings. Vladimir, Prince of Kiev, leads a Russian embassy, and visits Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. 987 Hugh Capet. Elected King of France (rules 987-996). July 987 Marks the end of Carolingian Dynasty of kings. Hugh Capet is the founder of the Capetian Dynasty of the Kings of France. The Capetian line will rule 937-1328. Great dearth throughout Albania. 987 Thousands perish. Revolt of Bardas Phocas against Basil II, Byzantine Emperor. 987 Main period of Mayan Empire comes to an end. 987 Death of St. Dunstan at Canterbury. May 19, 988 Vikings attack Devon and Somerset, England. 988 Irish Danes attack Wales. 988 Conversion of Vladimir, the Saint (King of the Rus), Prince of Kiev, from paganism to Christianity. 988 Vladimir will request baptism (989). Beginning of the conversion of Russia to the Byzantine (eastern) form of Christianity by Saint Vladimir the Great, Prince of Kiev. 988 Vladimir orders the destruction of all pagan works of art. Summons Byzantine artists to his court at Kiev. Famine. France. 987-1059 During this period, one million die from starvation. Vladimir, the Great, Prince of Kiev, conquers Kherson in the Crimea. 988 Vladimir the Great, the son of Svyatoslav, makes a treaty with Basil II, the Byzantine Emperor. 988 Vladimir, marries Anna, the daughter of Basil II. Desyatinnaya or the “Cathedral of the Dormition of the Virgin” at Kiev, Russia. 989 The cathedral will collapse in 1240. Famine. England. 989 “Grevious” famine caused by rains in the winter. Thousands perish. Al Hakim. Sixth Fatimid (Shi’ite) Caliph in Egypt. 990-1021 A monster of cruelty, he proclaims his own divinity. To this very day he is still worshipped by the Druse of Mount Lebanon as the supreme manifestation of Divine Intelligence and the final sum of all revelation. He will finally be murdered in 1021. Musical notation is systematized in Europe. ca.990 Poland submits to the Holy See. 990 By 990, Bulgarian rule extends from the Black Sea to the Adriatic. 990 William V. Duke of Aquitaine. 990-1029 Fulbert of Chartres (student of Gerbert of Aurillac). Opens a school at Chartres. 990 Battle of Maldon. August 11, 991 (Part of the Danish Invasions of England). Danish Vikings land at Maldon in Essex and demand tribute. The Alderman of Essex, Byrhtnoth refuses and is defeated by the Danish Viking invaders. Byrhtnoth and most of his Anglo-Saxon force are killed in the battle. The victorious Danes plunder the land at will. Svein I, Forkbeard of Denmark and Olaf Trygvesson are present. Ethelred II, the Unready, King of England. Begins paying tribute, “Danegeld”, to pay off both Earl Haakon, King of Norway and Sweyn I, Forkbeard, King of Denmark. 991 He pays 10,000 pounds of silver. Death of Theophano, the widow of Emperor Otto II, and mother of the future Emperor Otto III. 991 Ethelred II, the Unready, King of England. Makes a treaty with Richard I Duke of Normandy (the Normans). 992 Boleslav I Chrobry (Boleslaus I), the Brave of Poland. 992 Rules 992-1025. Boleslav I, the son of Mieszko I, organizes the first Polish state. Although he is a pagan at the time, he will later convert from his false religion and establish Christianity in Poland. Langeais Castle. France. Built by Fulk Nerra, the great builder of castles. 992 Sudden conversion from Viking paganism to Christianity of Olaf Skötkonung, the King of Sweden. Olaf is the first Christian King of Sweden. His mother is Sigrid, the Strong Minded (pagan). 993 Skötkonung rules Sweden 993-1024. Eruption of Mount Vesuvius. 993 Bernward, Bishop of Hildesheim (993-1022). Protector of the arts and education. 993 Yorkshire is ravaged by the Viking barbarians. 993 Odilo (b.962-d.1049). Abbot of Cluny. 994-1049 First datable stone “donjon”, or “keep”, is built in France at Langeais Castle, overlooking the Loire River. 994 Renewal of the invasion of England by the Danish Vikings (994-1012). 994 Danes are led by Sweyn, Forkbeard. The Danes under Sweyn Forkbeard with the Norwegians under Olaf Tryggvesson sail up the Thames River and besiege London. The Viking invaders burn London. Danes are bought off by Ethelred the Unready, with 16,000 pounds of silver. Sudden and unexpected conversion of Olaf Tryggvesson of Norway from Viking paganism to Christianity. 994 Destruction of the Christian monastery of Monte Cassino by Arab Mohammedans. 994 Boleslav I, Chrobry, King of Poland. Has extended his kingdom to the Baltic Sea. 994 Garcia Sanchez II. Kingdom of Navarre. 994-1000 Olaf Tryggvesson. Returns to Norway and deposes Earl Haakon. 995 A national assembly is held, and Olaf Tryggvesson is proclaimed King of all Norway. 995 Olaf Tryggvesson (Olaf I). Christian King of Norway. 995-1000 Olaf I begins the conversion of Norway, Iceland, and Greenland from Viking paganism to Christianity. Boleslav I, King of Poland. Conversion from paganism to Christianity. 996 Otto III of Germany. Campaigns against the Slavs. 995 Byzantines forces recapture Syria from the moslems. 995 Sweyn (Sven) I, Forkbeard. King of Denmark. Now also becomes the King of Sweden. 995 Henry II (972-1024) Succeeds his father, as Duke of Bavaria. 995 Durham Cathedral is begun. 995 Arrival of Icelandic settlers in Greenland. 996 Pope Gregory V, a Saxon. 996-999 Basil II, Byzantine Emperor. Retakes Greece. 996 Otto III (b.980-d.1002), son of Otto II, is crowned Emperor at Rome. 996 Receives consecration from Gregory V, the first German Pope. Otto III is Emperor: 996-1002. Beginning of the conversion of Norway from Viking paganism to Christianity. 996 Death of Hugh Capet, King of France. 996 Robert II, the Pious, son of Hugh Capet. King of France. 996-1031 Robert II of France marries the widow of Eudes. 996 Richard II, the Good. Duke of Normandy. 996-1027 St. Adalbert (956-997). Arrives in Poland and takes over Boleslav's missionary effort. 996 Al-Hakim, sixth Fatimid caliph (Shi’ite). 996-1021 Continues the severe persecution of non-Mohamedans, that is Jews and Christians. Church of St. Martin of Tours, France. Rebuilt. 997 Kenneth III, King of Scotland. 997-1005 St. Adalbert of Prague (956-997), Christian missionary to Prussia, is martyred by the heathen Prussians along the Nogat River. Apr. 23, 997 Mahmud, son of Sabuktigan, Sultan of Ghazni. 997-1030 Rise of the Sunni Moslem Ghaznavid Empire in Afghanistan. Ghazni is now in Afghanistan. Stephen I (Saint Stephen), son of Geza, called the apostle of Hungary, b ecomes the first Christian King of Hungary. 997 Reign of Stephen of Hungary (997-1038). Stephen begins to establish Christianity in Hungary. Christians recapture Oporto, the second largest city in Portugal, from the Mohammedans (lost 716). 997 This is part of the Portuguese Reconquista of Portugal. Forces of Svein, Forkbeard, of Denmark are in Wales and Cornwall. 997 Viking barbarians renew attacks on Dorset, Hants, Sussex, and Kent. 997-999 Crescentius the Younger, the Roman Duke, removes Pope Gregory V and installs John XVI as an anti-pope. 998 Battle of Sant Angelo. 998 Otto III, son of Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor, takes an army to Rome. Otto III removes the anti-pope, John XVI, and restores Gregory V, the first German pope. Otto III executes Crescentius the Younger. St. Heribert (d.1021). 998 Named archbishop of Cologne. Al Mansur leads the moslems out of Cordoba, goes through Portugal, and raids Santiago de Compostela. July-Aug 997 The city is empty so he orders his men to burn the city. Gerbert of Aurillac. French monk, scholar, teacher, and inventor. 999 Becomes Pope Sylvester II, the first French Pope (until his death in 1003). He is 50 years old. Gerbert was a master of theology, philosophy, logic, astronomy, biology, physics, mathematics, and languages. His contemporaries were astonished by his encyclopedic mind. Pope Sylvester II. French. 999-1003 Armenia is reunited to the Byzantine Empire. 999 Once again, the Danish Vikings sail up the Thames River, meeting the men of Ethelred the Unready outside Rochester. 999 Ethelred the Unready is totally unprepared for this attack. Final expedition of Basil II, the Byzantine Emperor against the Fatimids in Syria. 999 Under Boleslav I, Poland gains Silesia, Moravia, and Cracow. 999 Alfonso V. King of Léon. 999-1027 The Eleventh Century Olaf I Tryggvesson, King of Norway (995-1000). 1000 Commissions Leif Ericson to carry the Christian Doctrine to Greenland. Battle of Svolder (Swold Island in the Baltic Sea). 1000 Olaf Skötkonung, King of Sweden, in a coalition with Sweyn I, Forkbeard, King of Denmark, defeats Olaf Tryggvesson, King of Norway (995-1000) in a naval battle. Olaf Tryggvesson manages to escape. Olaf Skötkonung, King of Sweden, and Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark, divide Norway after the defeat of Olaf I King of Norway. 1000 Stephen I (b.969-1038) 1000 Formally crowned the first King of Hungary with a crown sent to him by Pope Sylvester II. This is the famous crown of St. Stephen that was captured in World War II by the American army and returned back to Hungary by the United States in 1978. Stephen I establishes Christianity in the Kingdom. St. Stephen of Hungary rules 1000-1038. Coronation of Stephen of Hungary (b.969-1038). Aug. 15, 1000 Continuation of the conversion of Hungary from indigenous paganism to Christianity. Stephen, King of Hungary. 1000 Founds the Monastery of Gran (Esztergom). Receives from the pope the title of “Apostolic Majesty”. Venice rules over the Dalmatian coast and the Adriatic Sea. 1000 Bohemia and Moravia are united. 1000 Once again, the Norsemen raid the coasts of England. 1000 Beginning of the conversion of what we now call Scandinavia from paganism to Christianity. c.1000 Christianity reaches Iceland. 1000 Conversion of Thorgeir, the Lawspeaker, of Iceland from Viking paganism to Christianity. Rule of Piasts in Poland. 1000 Christianity reaches Greenland. c.1000 Biarni Heriulfsson. Viking. Blown off course, he sights the coast of North America. 1000 Conversion of the heathen Leif Eriksson (son of Eric the Red) from Viking paganism to Christianity. 1000 Music school of St. Martial at Limoges. c.1000 Develops the polyphonic style of music. Leif Ericsson (son of Eric the Red). Norseman. Discovers North America. Calls it Vineland, the land of grape vines. 1002 Variously identified as Labrador, New Foundland, the New England Coast, and Martha's Vineyard Ethelred II, King of England. Ravages Cumberland and Anglesey (the Isle of Man). 1000 Avicenna. Arabian philosopher and physician. Writes "Canon of Medicine". ca.1000 The Bamberg Apocalypse. Illustrated manuscript. Germany. 1000 Took three years to produce. Invention of gunpowder by the Chinese. ca.1000 The Katholikon Church of the Lavra monastery in Mount Athos, Greece. Constructed. 1000-1050 Gandersheim Church. Germany. Built. 1000-1100 Church of St. Fedele in Como, Italy. Built. 1000-1100 Sancho III, the Great, of Navarre. King of Navarre. 1000 Gathers the rulers of Navarre, Leon, and Castille in an alliance against Al Mansor of Cordoba. Sancho III rules 1000-1035. Sancho III briefly unites northern Spain under his rule. By his will his kingdom will be partitioned upon his death into four Christian kingdoms of Navarre, Aragon, Castile, and Leon; divided among his four sons. Emperor Otto III visits Boleslav of Poland. 1000 Foundation of archbishopric of Gnesen (Gniezno) in Poland by Otto III. Contributes to the independent development of Poland. This moment in 1000AD marks the birth of the Polish nation. Otto III visits the tomb of Saint Adalbert. Otto III. Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Sets out on the journey south to Rome. 1000 Otto III desires to make Rome his permanent residence. The city of Tivoli revolts against imperial rule. 1000 Otto III restores peace there. The "Chanson de Roland" is written. ca.1000-1010 Poetic cycle celebrating Charlemagne and his court. It is not transcribed, however, for many years. Abbey of St. Hilaire, Poitiers. 1000 St. Pietro. Perugia, Italy. 1000 Earliest surviving translation of the Gospels into English. ca.1000 They were translated from the Latin Vulgate begun by St. Jerome in 382. Trelleborg. Viking settlement in Denmark. ca.1000 The Vikings attack Normandy. 1000 St. Martin monastery in Canigou, France. ca.1000 The first Romanesque style group of monastic buildings in the Pyrenees. Center of Judaism moves from Mesopotamia to Spain. 1000 Arabs and Jews become court physicians in Germany. 1000 Temple at Tanjore, India. ca.1000 Uxmol at Yucatan, Mexico. ca.1000 Mayan city covering an area of 250 acres. Introduction of bronze in the Andes, Peru. 1000 Bronze is valued highly as a more useful metal than gold. Western seven day week is introduced in China by the Persians. c.1000 Guido d'Arezzo (995-1050). Italian. c.1000 Improves the existing system of musical notation. Mahmud, Sultan of Ghazni (now in Afghanistan). Continues the Mohammedan invasion of India. 1001 Mahmud defeats Jaipal Roja of the Punjab, at Peshawar, and annexes his territory. Mahmud suppresses Hinduism in India. Otto III (b.980-d.1002). Attempts to make Rome his capital. 1001 Roman's rebel against Holy Roman Emperor Otto III. Otto III is driven out by the Romans. Svein, Forkbeard, of Denmark. Returns back to England at Hampshire and Devon, burns Teignton, and destroys the armies of Devon and Somerset. 1001 St. Benigne in Dijon France. Built. 1001-1018 Eastern rotunda is based on the original plan of the Holy Sepulchre of Jesus Christ in Jerusalem. Church of St. Michael, Hildesheim, Germany. 1001-1034 This church encouraged work that showed both humanity and a strong sense of order and ritual. Otto III (b.980-d.1002). Prepares to retake Rome. 1002 The Romans refuse to open the gates of Rome to him. Not wanting to wreak havoc on Rome, Otto III remains outside the city of Rome in the fortress of Paterno. Death from illness of Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor at Paterno, Italy. 1002 He dies within a few days of his 22nd birthday. He was never married and never had children. Henry II, the Saint (b.972-d.1024), cousin of Otto III, and Duke of Bavaria, is chosen King of Germany. Last of the Saxon kings. 1002 Henry II rules as King of Germany 1002-1024. Henry II will be canonized in 1146. Ethelred II, the Unready, gives the Danes 24,000 pounds of silver in exchange for a temporary truce.1002 Ethelred II the Unready, King of England, marries Emma, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy.1002 Battle of Calatañazor. 1002 Part of the Spanish Reconquista of Spain (711-1492). Sancho II the Great, moves his Christian forces south in an attempt to block Al Mansor's invasion at the plain separating northern and southern Spain. The Christian army deploys itself at Calatañazor and braces itself for the Mohammedan attack. After a day of fighting, Al Mansor gives the order to retreat. He later dies of an infected wound. A monk from Burgos wrote "Al Mansor died in 1002. He was buried in Hell.” Al Mansur dies (1002). Breakup of the caliphate of Cordoba. 1002 Beginning of the temporary decline of the caliphate of Cordoba in Spain. Brian Boru of Munster. Rules as high King of Ireland. 1002-1014 Raoul Glaber. "Concerning the Construction of Churches throughout the World." 1002-1003 Basil II Byzantine Emperor. Defeats the Bulgarians at Vidin. 1002 Byzantine forces take over Macedonia. 1002 Massacre of St. Brice's Day. Nov. 13, 1002 Danish Viking mercenaries in southern England are murdered by order of Ethelred II, the Unready. In retaliation, the Danes will continue to raid England regularly from 1002 until 1014. Aelfric of Eynsham (c.955-1020). “Heptateuch”. 1002-1005 Translates the first seven books of the Old Testament into what is now called “Old English”. Svein Forkbeard, King of Denmark, attacks England. 1002 War between Germany and Poland. 1003-1018 Poland seizes Bohemia (only to 1004). 1003 Bulgaria retakes Macedonia from the Byzantine Empire. 1003 Thorfinn Karlsefni founds a small settlement in North America. 1003 Settlement ends abruptly in 1006. Henry II, the Saint, King of Germany. Founds Bamberg Cathedral. 1003 Death of Gerbert of Aurillac (Pope Sylvester II). 1003 Sweyne (also Sven). King of Denmark and Sweden. Lands in England with an army of Norsemen and wreaks a terrible vengeance. Sweyne harries Wessex. 1003 England is now under Danish rule. 1003-1014 Al-Hakim, ruler of Egypt and Palestine. Begins his attack on Christians throughout his territories. 1003 Culminates in 1009. Arduin of Ivres, has himself crowned King of Italy (anti-King). 1004 Henry II (972-1024) First Italian campaign. Defeats Ardoin of Ivres in Lombardy. 1004 Crowned King of Lombardy at Pavia, Italy. Sack of Pisa, Italy by Arab Mohammedans. 1004 Henry II (972-1024). Drives Boleslaus I Chrobry of Poland out of Bohemia. 1004 Great famine. England. 1004-1005 A famine "such as no man could remember". Thousands perish. Rule of the Samanides is overthrown in Persia. 1004 Byzantine forces seize Skoplje in Croatia. 1004 St. Nilus of Rossano (910-1005). Founds the famous Monastery at Grottaferrata. 1004 China becomes tributary of the Tungusic Khitans. 1004 Death of St. Nilus of Rossano (910-1005). December 27, 1005 Death of St. Wulsin. 1005 Malcolm II. King of Scotland. 1005-1034 Fulbert of Chartres (student of Gerbert of Aurillac). Bishop of Chartres. 1006-1028 Rudolph III of Burgundy appoints Henry II of Germany as his heir. 1006 Mohammedans settle in northwest India. 1006 St. Alphege (c.954-1012). Appointed Archbishop of Canterbury (1006-1012). 1006 Ethelred II, the Unready, buys two years of freedom from attacks from the Danes under Svein Forkbeard for 36,000 pounds of silver. 1007 Earthquake. Deinar, Asia Minor. 1007 Over 10,000 people are buried in ruins. Basil II, Byzantine Emperor. Once again recaptures Macedonia from the Bulgarians. 1007 Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor, founds the bishopric of Hamburg. 1007 Mahmud (Moslem), Sultan of Ghazni, defeats the Hindu League at Peshawar. 1008 Berno. Abbot of Reichenau. Begins to write his books on music theory. c.1008 Famine with plague. Wales. Thousands perish. 1008 Fourth Moslem Civil War. 1008-1031 Fought in Spain. Leads to the elimination of the Umayyad caliphate in Spain. Moslem domains break up into separate kingdoms. Death of St. Bernard of Menthon (923-1008) at Novarra, Italy. 1008 St. Boniface (Bruno of Querfurt) and eighteen companions are massacred by pagan Prussians on the Russian border near Poland. Feb. 14, 1009 Thietmar. Bishop of Merseburg. 1009-1018 "Chronicle". Written. Continuation of the long build up to the permanent East-West schism in the church. 1009 Will end in final separation in 1054. Destruction of the Holy Sepulchre of Jesus Christ in Jerusalem by the Mohammedans under Caliph al-Hakim the Fatimid Caliph of Egypt. 1009 The Holy Sepulchre is profaned by the Mohammedans. Fall of Cosenza, Italy to the Mohammedans. 1009 Danish Vikings attack London. 1009 St. Pedro de Casserres. Spain. Romanesque style church. c.1010 Baptism of Olaf (b.995-d.1030), son of Harold, King of Norway, at Rouen. 1010 Civil War continues to break up the Omayyad kingdom in Spain into smaller Mohammedan states. 1010 The Berbers plunder Cordoba, Spain and massacre the population. 1010 The "Handkerchief" of Saint Veronica is kept in a special altar at Rome, Italy. 1011 Battle of Mortlack. 1011 Between the Danish Vikings under Sweyn I, Forkbeard, and the Scots under King Malcolm II. The Danish Vikings are totally defeated and forced to flee to their ships. Ethelred II, King of England, invades South Wales. 1011 Danish Viking invasion of Canterbury. 1011 Danish Vikings invade Canterbury, England, plunder the city, kill the people, murder the religious, rob the churches, and take the Archbishop of Canterbury, St. Aelfheah (Alphege), (954-1012) captive in order to get a ransom. St. Alphege is held prisoner by the Danish Vikings for several months. Alphege refuses to allow the people to raise the ransom for his release. St. Alphege is severely beaten by his Danish captors until one of them ends his life (1012) by a blow with a Viking axe. Svein Forkbeard of Denmark is bought off in Canterbury. 1011 Ethelred II, the Unready, pays an additional 48,000 pounds of silver. Svein Forkbeard leaves England. Slav rebellion in Northalbingia and Northern March. 1011-1013 Saint Romuald (c.950-1027). Founds Christian monastery at Vallombrosa. 1012 Heinrich Cathedral. Bamberg. 1012 Construction is begun on the church of St. Martin in Angers, France. 1012 This church contains the oldest of French Romanesque style domes. Famine. England. Thousands perish. 1012 Famine. Germany. Thousands perish. 1012 Greenstead-Juxta-Ongar Church in Essex, England. 1013 This is the only Anglo-Saxon church with wooden walls. Church of Saint Miniato in Florence. 1013 This is an example of an early Christian basilica. Svein I, Forkbeard, of Denmark. Claims his right to the throne of England. 1013 Sweyn I, Forkbeard of Denmark (bastard son of Harold Bluetooth) and his son Canute invade England with over 300 Viking ships. 1013 Sweyn I takes Northumbria, Wessex, and London. Sweyn, Forkbeard, conquers and controls all of England. Ethelred II, the Unready, his Norman wife Emma, and his son Edward, flee from England and cross over to her home in Normandy (1013-14). Sweyn I, Forkbeard, of Denmark rules England. 1013-1014 The Danish Vikings will rule England for 29 years. 1013-1042 The Bulgarian army defeats the Byzantine army by driving them 1014 into a narrow valley in Macedonia and smashing them with stones. Henry II (b.972-d.1024). Holy Roman Emperor. Second Italian campaign. Ardoin of Ivrea submits. 1014 Henry II is crowned Holy Roman Emperor at Rome by Pope Benedict VIII. Henry II is Emperor 1014-1024. Battle of Balathista. 1014 Defeat of the Bulgarians at Balathista in the valley of the Struma river by the Byzantine Emperor Basil II. Basil II has the Bulgarian army of almost 15,000 prisoners blinded. He blinds ninety nine out of every 100 captives. Basil II leaves one out of every 100 men with one eye and has them lead the rest of the men back home. When Samuel, the Bulgarian leader, sees his blinded army, he dies on the spot. Basil II begins the conquest of the first Bulgarian Empire (to 1018). Sudden death of Sweyn I, Forkbeard, King of Denmark. January 1014 He is succeeded by his son Canute as King of England. Canute is king 1014-1035. Incredibly, right before his death, Sweyn I Forkbeard and his son Canute convert from Viking heathenism to Christianity. Battle of Clontarf. April 23, 1014 Brian Borumha of Ireland defeats the Danish Viking invaders at Clontarf (Dublin, Ireland). Brian Borumha (also Boru) is killed in battle. Brian kills 7,000 Northmen in a Good Friday battle finally ending the Viking era in Ireland. End of Viking rule in Ireland. The English recall Ethelred II, the Unready, as king. 1014 Ethelred II launches an invasion and successfully recaptures England from the Danish Vikings. Canute, King of Denmark, is forced back to Denmark. Wulfstan (d.1023). Writes “Sermo Lupi ad Anglos,” his most famous sermon. 1014 Cnut (Canute) again invades England. 1015 War between the Danes and the Saxons. Submission of Wessex, England to Canute, King of Denmark. 1015 Olaf II Haraldsson. Returns to Norway. 1015 Captures most of Norway back from the Danes and the Swedes. Olaf II (Haraldsson), the Saint. King of Norway. 1015-1028 Olaf II Haraldsson. Restores the independence of Norway. 1015 Begins the conversion of Norway from Viking paganism to Christianity. Robert II. King of France. Brings Burgundy under control of the French kings. 1015 Strasbourg Cathedral, France. Begun. c.1015 Vladimir dies at Beresyx, Russia while leading an expedition against his rebellious son Yaroslav in Novgorod. 1015 Beginning of the reign of Yaroslav (also written Jaroslav) the Wise. 1015 Prince of Kiev. Rules 1015-1054. Yaroslav the Wise is the son of St. Vladimir. Yaroslav the Great, Prince of Kiev. Rules Russia. 1015-1054 Builds churches, Christian schools, cities, and codifies Russian law. Fall of Sardinia to the Arab Mohammedans. 1015 Will be recaptured by Christians the following year in 1016. Introduction of sight singing at Pomposa monastery in Italy. 1015 Arrival of Norman knights in southern Italy. 1016 Forty Norman knights, returning from a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, stop at Salerno. They are invited by the people of the city to join them in repelling a Mohammedan attack. The military prowess of these Norman knights is such that they are urged to stay. Beginning of the re-conquest of Southern Italy from the moslems by Norman knights. 1016 Beginning of Norman infiltration of moslem ruled Sicily. 1016 The European continent is crippled by severe famine. 1016 Thousands perish. Death of Ethelred II, the Unready, King of England. April 1016 Edmund II, Ironside, and Canute divide the kingdom among themselves. Canute holds the north of England and Edmund II holds Wessex. Edmund II, Ironside, is assassinated. Nov. 1016 St. Olaf (Olaf II) Haraldsson of Norway. Reunites the divided Norway. 1016-1028 Canute (also Cnut), the Great, King of Denmark, is elected King of all of England by the English. 1016 Canute makes England the center of his North Sea empire. England becomes part of the Danish Empire. Reign of Canute the Great in Denmark and England. 1016-1035 Canute is a Christian (Roman Catholicism). His descendants will rule England until 1042. Battle of Nesje. 1016 Olaf Haraldsson of Norway defeats Earl Sweyn and becomes King of Norway (rules 1016-1028). Ends the rule of Sweden and Denmark since 1000. Christianity begins to be established in what is still pagan Norway. Sardinia is rescued from the Mohammedans under Mujahid of Denia, by the Pope, Pisa, and Genoa.1016 Second great Slav uprising in Germany. 1016 St. Paul’s, Worms. 1016 Canute the Great. Divides England into four earldoms. 1017 Bernay Abbey, France. Earliest surviving Norman Church. 1017-1050 Battle of Carham. 1018 Malcolm II, King of Scotland, defeats Northumbria at the Battle of Carham. Malcolm II extends his kingdom at the expense of Northumbria. Union of southern and northern Scotland. 1018 Basil II. Byzantine Emperor. Western Bulgaria is again reduced to a Byzantine province. 1018 Byzantine Empire regains Macedonia from the Bulgarians. Submission of the Bulgarians to the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire defeats and absorbs Bulgaria. End of the Kingdom of Bulgaria. Bulgaria will remain under Byzantine rule from 1018 until 1185. Peace of Bautzen. 1018 End of war between Poland (Boleslav) and Germany (Henry II). Poland keeps Lusatia. Council of Oxford. 1018 King Canute confirms the laws of Edgar, King of England (959-975). Danes and English are to live under English laws. Mahmud of Ghazni pillages the city of Muttra, India. 1018 King Canute marries Emma of Normandy, the widow of Ethelred II. 1019 Her son Edward remains in Normandy. Caliph al-Hakim proclaims that he is an incarnation of God. 1020 Al-Hakim, the sixth Fatimid Caliph, founds the Druse sect, a sect venerating al-Hakim, the Fatimid caliph. Consecration of Bamberg Cathedral by Pope Benedict VIII. 1020 Originally built by St. Henry II. Ripoll Abbey, Spain. 1020-1032 Copied from the plan of the Old St. Peter’s Church at Rome. Church of St. Vincente de Cardona in Spain. 1020-1040 Church of the Apostles, in Athens, Greece. ca.1020 The crypt of Chartres Cathedral. 1020 England. Great inundations followed by plague. 1020 Number of dead is unknown. St. Vitus dance epidemics in Europe. 1021 Assassination of Al-Hakim. 1021 Beginning of the temporary decline of Fatimid (Shi’ite) power. Az-Zahir. Fatimid Caliph of Egypt. 1021-1036 Basil II. Byzantine Emperor. Campaigns against Armenia. 1021-1022 Henry II. Holy Roman Emperor. Third Italian campaign. 1021-1022 Unsuccessful expedition of Emperor Henry II against Byzantine forces in Apulia in Southern Italy. Synod of Pavia. 1022 Insists on maintaining the celibacy of the priesthood both in the West and also in the Byzantine churches. Robert, King of France, has thirteen Cathari (Catharism) heretics executed by burning, in his presence at Orleans. 1022 Famine followed by drought. Hindustan. 1022 During the reign of Musaood I, entire countries are depopulated. Number of thousands of deaths is unknown. The Tale of Genji by Fujiwara no Nobutaka, called Murasaki Shikibu (978-c.1031), woman novelist and poet. 1022 It is regarded by many to be Japan’s greatest novel. Death of Eric, the Saint, King of Sweden. 1022 Abbadides (Abbadids), Arab Mohammedan dynasty. 1023-1091 Briefly rules Seville, Spain. The Abbadides will rule until the occupation of Seville by the Almoravids. Saint Romuald (c.950-1027). Founds a Christian monastery at Camaldoli near Arezzo. 1023 Death of Holy Roman Emperor, St. Henry II (b.972-1024). July 13, 1024 St. Cunegundes (d.1033), the wife of Emperor Henry II (972-1024). 1024 Enters the Benedictine convent at Kaufungen, Hesse, after her husband’s death. Henry II (972-1024), Holy Roman Emperor, is succeeded as German King by Conrad II, the Salic, Duke of Franconia. 1024 End of the Saxon dynasty. Conrad rules 1024-1039. Will be crowned emperor in 1027. A Franconian family known as the Salian dynasty comes into power. Salian line of emperors of the Holy Roman Empire are in power. 1024-1125 Olaf Skottkonung, King of Sweden (son of Eric the Conqueror). Is murdered by rebellious followers at Stockholm when he refuses to sacrifice to the false gods of the heathen Vikings. 1024 Pope John XIX. 1024-1032 Basil II, Byzantine Emperor. Sends an embassy to Pope John XIX at Rome. Asks for independent rights of the eastern patriarch (autocephalia). 1024 John XIX realizes that this would lead to a split between the East and West and therefore refuses. Conquest of Somnath in Gujarat, India by Mahmud of Ghazni, Mohammedan ruler in India. 1024 Death of Byzantine Emperor Basil II, Bulgaroctonos. 1025 Basil II is succeeded by Constantine VIII. 1025-1028 Constantine VIII is the brother of Basil II. Council of Arras. 1025 Condemns the Cathari (Neo-Manichaeans and Albigenses). Indecisive battle between Canute and Olaf at Holy River, Sweden. 1025 Boleslav I (ruled 992-1025), ruler since 992. Accepts the title of King of Poland. Dies in same year. 1025 Mieszko II Lambert. King of Poland. 1025-1034 Guido d’Arezzo. Italian. 1025 “Micrologus.” Prepares a guide for the teaching of music, one of the seven Liberal Arts. Rains and plague in England cause famine. 1025 Thousands perish. Great famine. Egypt. Thousands perish. 1025-1026 During the Caliphate of Az-Zahir. Limburg Abbey, Germany. Massive basilican church. Now ruined. 1025-1041 Canute, King of England and Denmark. Goes on pilgrimage to the city of Rome. 1026-1027 Conrad II. First expedition to Italy. 1026-1027 Council of Elne. 1026 Hisham III (Hixem). Umayyad Caliph in Spain (Cordoba). 1026-1031 With him will end the Caliphate of the West (1031). Richard III. Duke of Normandy. 1026-1027 Malcolm II of Scotland does homage to Canute. 1026 Pope John XIX. Crowns Conrad II Holy Roman Emperor at Rome. Mar. 1027 Conrad II is the first emperor of the House of Franconia. Robert I the Devil (Robert le Diable) becomes Duke of Normandy. 1027 Robert I rules 1027-1035. He is the father of the future William the Conqueror (b.1027-d.1087). Death of Saint Romuald (c.950-1027). June 19, 1027 St. Stephen I of Hungary. Wins Slovakia from Poland. 1027 Birth of William of Normandy (the future William the Conqueror). 1027 Lives 1027-1087. New empire of the Mayas extends north to Mexico. 1027 Invasion and conquest of Norway by Canute the Great. 1028 Canute gains control of Norway. Olaf is driven out of Norway by Canute and takes refuge in Russia. Canute is made king of Norway (1028-1035). Romanus III Argyropulos. Byzantine Emperor. 1028-1034 Sancho of Navarre acquires Castile. 1028 Settlement of Normans in Southern Italy. 1029 Begins at Aversa near Naples. Bermudo III. King of Leon. 1028-1037 Destruction of half of the city of Damascus (Asiatic Turkey) by earthquake. 1029 Thousands are killed. Romanus III, Byzantine Emperor, makes an assault on the Saracens in Syria. 1030 The Mohammedans however defeat the Byzantine army. Olaf II Haraldsson returns back from Russia and attempts to regain the throne of the kingdom of Norway. 1030 Battle of Stiklestad (in Norway). July 29. 1030 Canute defeats and kills Olaf II Haraldsson, the former King of Norway. Guido of Arezzo. Italian Christian monk. Devises modern system of music notation. c.1030 Jaroslav of Kiev. Founds Dorpat. 1030 Speyer Cathedral. Germany. Begun. c.1030 Will be completed in 1853. Prince Emeric, son of Stephen of Hungary. 1030 Assumes command of the royal army. The Hungarians defeat the forces of the German Emperor Conrad II, pushing them back to Vienna. The Seljuks advance in Asia Minor. 1030 Henry I (b.1004-d.1060). Capetian King of France. 1031-1060 End of Moslem Civil War (1008-1031). 1031 Collapse of the Omayyad Dynasty (Caliphate of Córdoba) in Spain, that was established in 755. Hisham III (Hixem), the last of the Omayyads, is banished from Córdoba and sent into exile. The Omayyad dynasty of Abu Sufyan vanishes from history. Death of Rudolph III of Burgundy. Conrad II unites Burgundy with the Holy Roman Empire. 1032 Pope Benedict IX. 1032-1045 The Germans and Russians defeat Mieczyslav II of Poland. 1033 Poland becomes fief of the Holy Roman Empire. Harold III, surnamed Hardrada, future king of Norway (1047), enters the military service at Constantinople. 1033 Vikings help Byzantine fleets defeat the Mohammedan invaders. 1033-1035 Great famine in France. 1033 Murder of Romanus III, Byzantine Emperor. 1034 Michael IV, the Paphlagonian, becomes Byzantine Emperor. Michael IV rules 1034-1041. Pagan uprising (“Pagan reaction”) in Poland. 1034-1040 Murder of Malcolm II of Scotland. 1034 He is succeeded by his grandson Duncan I. Duncan I rules Scotland 1034-1040. Duncan I. King of Scotland. 1034-1040 Bratislav. Duke of Bohemia. 1034-1055 Würzberg Cathedral. Begun. 1034 Death of Sancho, the Great, of Navarre. 1035 Appearance of the Kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, and Navarre in Northern Spain. Ferdinand I, the Great. King of Castile. 1035-1065 Garcia Sanchez III. King of Navarre. 1035-1054 Ramiro I. First King of Aragon. 1035-1065 Death of Robert I, the Duke of Normandy, at Nicaea, after returning from his pilgrimage to Jerusalem. 1035 William (the future William the Conqueror) of Normandy inherits the rule of northwestern France from his father Robert I, Duke of Normandy. William will remain Duke of Normandy from 1035 until his death in 1087. Death of Canute the Great. 1035 His kingdom is divided between his three sons. Harold I Harefoot receives England (rules 1035-1040). Magnus I receives Norway (rules 1035-1047). Hardicanute rules Denmark (rules 1035-1042). St. Peter Damian (1001-1072). Benedictine Order. Joins the Benedictine Order at Fonte Avellana. 1035 He devotes himself to the study of the Old Testament and the New Testament. Beginning of the Norman conquest of southern Italy, from the Byzantine Empire. 1036 Conrad II subdues the Lyutitzi Slavs. 1036 By 1036, Yaroslav controls all of Russia. 1036 Conrad II. Second expedition to Italy. 1036 Union of León and Castile in Spain under Ferdinand I, the Great. 1037 Ferdinand I, the Great (d.1065) King of León and Castile. 1037-1065 Ferdinand I of Castile (d.1065). 1037 Asserts supremacy over the few territories in Spain that are not under Mohammedan rule. Continues with the Spanish Reconquista (711-1492). Notre Dame in Jumiégè, France. Built. 1037-1067 Early Norman style Catholic Church. Church of St. Sophia (Holy Wisdom), Kiev, Russia. Begun. 1037-1046 The most influential ecclesiastical structure in Russian architecture. Seljuk Empire. 1037 Appearance of the Seljuk Turks in the Middle East. The Seljuk Empire included what is now called Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. Tughrul Beg. Grand Sultan (first) of the Seljuk Empire. 1037-1063 Death of Avicenna (ibn Sina) of Bokhara (980-1037). 1037 Death of St. Stephen of Hungary (b.969-d.1038). August 15, 1038 He dies 38 years to the day after his coronation in August 15, 1000. Peter Orseolo. King of Hungary. 1038-1041 St. John Gualbert. Italian. Founding of the Order of Vallombrosians at Vallombrosa (Vallis Umbrosa). 1038 A mixed force of Byzantines, Italians, and Norwegians recapture Rametta, Sicily from the occupying Mohammedans. 1038 Casimir I, the Restorer. King of Poland. 1038-1058 Bratislav of Bohemia seizes Silesia. 1038 Eadsige (Easdin) d.1050. Archbishop of Canterbury. 1038-1050 Agreement between Hardacnut of Denmark and Magnus of Norway. 1038 Invasion and conquest of Persia by the Seljuk Turks. 1038 Destruction of the city of Shansi, China by an earthquake. 1038 23,000 dead. Defeat of the English by Gruffydd ap Llywellyn, king of Gwynedd and Powys. 1039 Death of Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor. 1039 Reign of Henry III (of the House of Franconia; Salian dynasty). 1039-1056 During his reign Henry III defeats the Bohemians and Hungarians, and makes them both tributary. Church of St. Maria im Kapitol in Cologne, Germany. 1040-1069 Payern Priory, Switzerland. ca.1040-1100 This is the finest Swiss Romanesque style Catholic Church. Destruction of the city of Tabriz, Persia by earthquake. 1040 Over 50,000 people are killed. Death of Harold I Harefoot of England. 1040 He is succeeded by his half-brother Hardicanute. Hardicanute is King of England. 1040-1042 Liberation of Dragina, Sicily from the moslems, by a Christian army. 1040 Macbeth kills Duncan in battle at Elgin. 1040 Macbeth becomes King of Scotland after killing his predecessor Duncan I, King of Scotland. Macbeth. King of Scotland. 1040-1057 Seljuks defeat the Ghaznavids at Dandankan. 1040 Petrocellus. “Practica.” 1040 Medical work of the school of medicine of Salerno, Italy. Outbreak of Bulgarian Revolt against Byzantine rule. 1040 Revolt is led by the Slav leader Peter Delyan. Proclamation of the “Truce of God” in Aquitaine. 1040 Theotokos Church at the Hosios Lucas monastery. c.1040 Battle of Montemaggiore. 1041 Defeat of the Byzantine Greeks by the Lombards and the Normans at Montemaggiore. The Normans defeat Byzantine forces in Apulia, Italy. Normans conquer Apulia, Italy. 1041 Michael V Kalaphates. Byzantine Emperor. 1041-1042 Bratislav I is forced to do homage to the German Emperor Heinrich III (the Black) and relinquish Polish territory. 1041 Casimir I. Duke of Poland. 1041-1058 Abo Samuel usurps the throne of Hungary. 1041 Peter Orseolo, the legal heir, flees to Germany. Abo Samuel rules Hungary 1041-1044. Hardicanute, King of England, and son of Canute and Emma of Normandy, has a fit during an orgy and dies of drink. 1042 End of the line of Canute the Great. End of Danish rule in England (1013-1042). The throne of England reverts back to the Wessex dynasty, with Edward, who will one day be known as St. Edward the Confessor. St. Edward the Confessor (b.1003-d.1066). 1042 At the age of forty, Edward the son of Ethelred II, King of Wessex and Emma of Normandy is called from Normandy, France where he was raised. Edward restores Anglo-Saxon rule in England. Serves his country as the first Anglo-Saxon king to rule over a united England. He is crowned in the famous Winchester Cathedral by Archbishop Eadsige. Edward will rule 1042 until his death in 1066. Magnus, the Good, son of Olaf II, succeeds Hardicanute, thereby joining Norway and Denmark. 1042 Magnus, the Good, rules as king of Norway and Denmark: 1042-1047. Proclamation of the “Truce of God” in Normandy. 1042 Giorgios Maniakas, Byzantine general. Defeats the Normans at the battle of Monopoli near Naples. 1042 Michael V, Byzantine Emperor desires to be the sole ruler of the Byzantine Empire. He exiles Zoe to the island of Prinkipio. 1042 The people of Constantinople rebel against Michael V for exiling Zoe. Zoe and Theodora. Empresses of Byzantium. 1042 Constantine IX, Monomachos. Byzantine Emperor. 1042-1055 The Byzantine Empire is ravaged by famine. 1042 Thousands of Byzantines perish. Church of Nea Moni at Chios, Greece. 1042-1056 Michael Cerularius. Patriarch of Constantinople. 1043-1058 This is one of the key figures in the controversies that will soon divide Constantinople from the Roman Catholic Church. Michael Cerularius, Patriarch of Constantinople (1043-1058). Reproaches the Roman Catholic Church for using unleavened bread for communion (the Eucharist).1043 Church of Saint Mark, Venice. Begun. 1043 Completed 1094. Fourth expedition of Russian fleet against Constantinople. 1043 The Russians are defeated. Birth of Rodrigo Diaz, El Cid (1045-1099). 1045 Harold, son of Godwin, and brother-in-law of King Edward, is made Earl of East Anglia. 1045 Berengarius (or Bérenger). c.1045 Begins to attack the doctrine of Transubstantiation and the Real Presence. Henry III restores Peter Orseolo to the throne of Hungary. 1045 King Peter Orseolo returns to Hungary and does homage to Henry III, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Collegiate Church of St. Peter, Westminster, England. 1045-1065 Also called the second Westminster Abbey. Built for King Edward the Confessor in London. This is the first church in England that is built in the Norman style of architecture. St. Sophia (Holy Wisdom) Cathedral, Novgorod, Russia. Begun. c.1045 Henry III (b.1017-d.1056). Dec. 25, 1046 Crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in Rome. Emperor 1046-1056. Synod of Sutri. 1046 Beginnings of Cluny Reform of the Papacy. Andrew I. King of Hungary. 1046-1060 Church of St. Ambrogio (Ambrose). Milan, Italy. 1046-1150 Consecration of the Church of St. Gertrude, Nivelles, Belgium. 1046 William of Normandy (age 20). 1047 With the help of a cavalry force of Henry I, King of France, William defeats rebellious nobles at the Battle of Val-des-Dunes, near Caen. William of Normandy establishes his position as Duke of Normandy. Snow and frost cause famine in Ireland. 1047 Thousands perish. Famine. Scotland. 1047-1048 Thousands perish. Harold III, surnamed Hardrada (“the Stern”), King of Norway. 1047-1066 Harold III defeated the Saracens in 18 battles in Africa. Sweyn II, Estrithson. King of Denmark. 1047-1076 Saint Leo IX is elected Pope. Leo IX succeeds Pope Damasus II. 1048 Birthplace: Germany. William of Normandy defeats Geoffrey of Anjou. 1048 William takes Domfront and Alençon. Byzantine forces defeat invading Seljuk Turks at Sragna. 1048 Michael Constantine Psellus (1018-1096). Byzantine author, philosopher, and astronomer (born at Constantinople). “Opus in quatuor mathematicas disciplinas - arithmeticam, musicam, geometriam, et astronomiam.” c.1048 Leo IX (1002-1054) is consecrated Pope. February 12, 1049 Pope 1049-1054. Death of Odilo (b.962-d.1049), Abbot of Cluny since 994. 1049 Hugh is Abbot of Cluny (1049-1109). Saint Leo IX (Pope) consecrates the Cathedral of Rheims. 1049 Hildebrand (c.1020-1085) is called from the cloisters of a French monastery, to Rome, in order to become the advisor of the Church. 1049 Condemnation of Berengarius at Vercelli. 1050 Beginning of the penetration of the Normans into England. 1050 Oldest Christian monasteries in Kiev, Russia. c.1050 Exeter Cathedral, England. Begun. 1050 “Vie de St. Alexis.” French biography. 1050 Continued development of polyphonic (many voiced) music in Europe. Begins to replace Gregorian chant. c.1050 Jain temples (Jainism) at Mount Abu, India. c.1055 Palazzo Reale. Palermo, Sicily. 1050 Collapse of Egypt under military dictatorship. 1050 St. Augustine Rotunda, Canterbury, England. ca.1050 Anglo-Saxon Rotunda. Cathedral of St. Sophia (Holy Wisdom), Novgorod, Russia. Completed. c.1050 St. Saviour Church in the Chora, Constantinople. ca.1050 Also known as the Kariye Djami. Rebuilt on fourth century foundations. Barrenness of the land in England causes famine, disease, and mortality. 1050 Thousands perish. Emergence of Romanesque style architecture in Europe. c.1050 William of Normandy (b.1027-d.1087). Visits his childless kinsman, Edward the Confessor (1003-1066) in England. 1051 William of Normandy (b.1027-d.1087). William receives the promise of succession to the English throne from his cousin Edward the Confessor (1003-1066). 1051 Great famine forces migration of Toltecs in Mexico. 1051 Unknown thousands perish. St. Edward the Confessor (1003-1066), King of England. Founds and builds Westminster Abbey, near London. 1052 Seven years of drought at Ghor (Hindustan) burns the earth and causes mass death from famine, heat, and disease. 1052-1060 Thousands perish. William I, the Conqueror (b.1027-d.1087) Marries Matilda of Flanders, a descendant of Alfred the Great (d.899). 1052 Stigand (a Saxon). Becomes Archbishop of Canterbury. 1052-1070 Pisa recaptures Sardinia from the Arabs Mohammedans. 1052 Robert Guiscard (c.1015-1085). Norman. 1053 Conquers Southern Italy and founds Norman empire there. Vassalage of Normans in Italy to the Pope. 1053 Danegeld is abolished. 1053 Henry IV, son of Henry III. Elected and crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. 1053 Godwin, Earl of Essex. Leads a revolt and forces the exile of the Norman appointees of Edward the Confessor. 1053 Godwin will die before the end of the year. Michael Cerularius. Orders the closing of all churches of the Roman Catholic (Latin) rite in Constantinople. 1053 Pope Leo IX sends an embassy to Constantinople. 1053 They will arrive the following year in 1054.

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Pope Gregory XI condemns 19 propositions of John Wycliffe (Wycliffism) while he is still in France. 1377 Pope Gregory XI leaves Avignon and sets sail for Rome. 1377 Pope Gregory XI finally returns the papacy to Rome. Jan. 17, 1377 Gregory XI returns to Rome and reenters St. Peter’s. End of the “Babylonian Captivity” of the Roman Catholic Church in Avignon, France, which had lasted since 1309. Death of Edward III, King of England. 1377 Succeeded by Richard II (b.1367-d.1400), son of Edward the Black Prince. Richard II rules 1377-1399. Ulm Cathedral. Germany. Begun. 1377 John Wycliffe is before Bishop Courtenay of London. 1377 John Wycliffe. Denies the Real Presence (Transubstantiation), attacks monasticism, rejects the sacraments of the Church, and denies Free Will. 1377 Ragusa (Dubrovnik). First European use of “quarantine” (forty days) against plague. 1377 Wladyslaw II Jagiello succeeds his father Algirdas, as Grand Duke of Lithuania. 1377 Radu I succeeds Vladislav I as Prince of Wallachia (modern day southern Romania). 1377 Ibn Khaldoun (1332-1406). The “Muqaddimah”. 1377

Angelo Braschi is elected Pope and takes the name of Pius VI. Feb. 1775 Patrick Henry (1736-1799). Addresses the revolutionary convention with his famous speech. "Give me liberty or give me death". March 1775 The Ride of Paul Revere and William Dawes. April 18, 1775 They alert the colonists that British soldiers are on the way to Concord to destroy a military depot. Battle of Lexington. April 18, 1775 First armed clash between American militia and British troops. British move on to Concord. Beginning of the American Revolution (1775–1783) against England. Battle of Concord. April 19, 1775 The British are defeated and retreat to Boston. Second Continental Congress assembles at Philadelphia. May 10, 1775 Statement of American war objectives is made at Philadelphia. 1775 Battle of Fort Ticonderoga. May 10-12, 1775 The Green Mountain Boys under Colonel Ethan Allen (joined by Colonel Benedict Arnold) capture Fort Ticonderoga, New York from the English. A colonial force under Seth Warner (1743-1784) seizes Crown Point, New York. May 1775 Southern colonies expel their governors. 1775 England hires 29,000 German mercenaries for war in North America. 1775

Conquest of Granada. Jan. 2,1492 Surrender of Abu-Abdullah Mohammed XI (Boabdil), the last Mohammedan King of Granada (1482-1492), to troops of Ferdinand and Isabella. The conquest of the Mohammedan kingdom of Granada marks the end of the reconquest of Spain by Christendom from the Mohammedans. Union of Granada with Castile. Christopher Columbus is present at the capitulation of Boabdil. End of the Mohammedan era in Spain that was begun in 711. The moslems occupied Spain for 781 years. The Jihad in Spain comes to an end. Unification of Spain. 1492 Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. Christopher Columbus (1451-1506). Genoese explorer and navigator. First Voyage. August 1492-March 1493 After years of agitation in Spain, Columbus gains the support of Queen Isabella for his westward journey in search of India. Columbus, age 41, sails from Palos, Spain, in order to search for a western route to Asia. Columbus leaves with a 70 man crew on the Santa Maria, the Nina, and the Pinta. In total, during his life, Columbus will make four voyages to the New World. Christopher Columbus. Crosses the Atlantic Ocean after a journey of 61 days and reaches the New World. October 12, 1492 He lands on Guanahani, one of the Bahama Islands on October 12, 1492. He names the land San Salvador and claims it for Spain. Christopher Columbus discovers Cuba. October 27, 1492 Sighted on Oct. 27, and landing was on Oct. 28, 1492.